Love Naruto, powers rangers, batman, DC and other thing

Naruto x Batgirl

Naruto x Supergirl

Naruto x Poison ivy

World History Notes

Birth of Europe

Phoenicians

1. The decline of two major Middle Eastern empires allowed a group of sea faring traders the chance create a trading empire throughout the Mediterranean Sea

2. At the same time they will spread the seeds of a new civilization to grow in Europe. Princess Europa

3. The Phoenicians didn't just give history a new geographical name, their alphabet is also the ancestor to our alphabet

Minoans 2700B.C. to 1450 B.C

On the island of Crete in the Eastern Mediterranean Sea another sea trading culture developed. One of their great kings was Minos and he built a palace at Knossos

Since Crete was so ideally situated, the Minoan kings gathered in wealth and ideas of Greece, Palestine, Syria and Egypt.

Mycenae 1600BC to 1100BC

A warrior people out central Asia the Mycenae took control of Greece, and islands of Aegean Sea, including Crete.

They were a Greek speaking people that like the Minoans and Phoenicians set out to also create a trade empires.

The Mycenae will continue to spread culture and technology.

In their most famous war the Mycenae got in a dispute over a dispute over control of vital trade routes with a city-state across the Aegean Sea.

Mycenae cities enough to fall invasion from the northern Greece by the Dorians

The fall of Mycenae civilization meant that Greece would fall on hard times for the 350 years.

Homer's epic poems lliad and Odyssesy were written down during their period. They provide us with only real look at ancient Greece

When the knowledge of iron was introduced to the Greeks, the iron plow allowed more land to be brought agriculture. Things began to improve and trade revived.

A revival of Greek culture occurred that historians call Classical Greece.

The Western Hemisphere

Geography & North America

Geography of North America

From North America to South America there is every climate and feature known to man

In South America is found the world's largest the amazon, and the world's driest desert, the Atacama

The two continents are joined at the Isthmus of Panama

A single mountain chains runs from North America through Central

America and South America

Both continents have land suitable for farming and herding; both also rich in natural resources

It's not surprising man would find a way to survive and thrive here.

Tens to thousands of years ago people from Asia migrated to North America by crossing a land /ice bridge that formed between Alaska and Siberia during the last ice age

Over the centuries the Paleolithic and Neolithic nomads spread throughout the Americas.

They followed the herds and fished that lakes and rivers, but eventually these people learned farm too.

The Inuit learned to survive in the far north hunting whale, seal and caribou. They built stout comfy homes to survive the winters.

By 1000BC the tribes of eastern North America settled into farming villages consisting of longhouse built to house extended families.

The Iroquois League was created as a formal gov't for their still tribe/clan society.

Great Plains tribes would farm, but each summer the men would leave to hunt buffalo. Buffalo were vital for its many resources, like providing skins for teepees.

By 800AD in hot and dry southwest of N. Am the Anasazi used dams and canals to successfully farm.

None of the cultures of North America however rose to the level of a civilization.

Central and South America

The Olmec was the first civilization to rise in the Americas

It was established along the Caribbean coast just west of the Yucatan peninsula.

The people used slash and burn farming along the rivers.

They used sap from the rubber trees to create a ball game'…

Men farmed and provided labor for the priests. Women kept the home.

They had no cities, just religious centers. The sun god was the chief god of their religion and he had temple pyramid.

In order to keep the gods from destroying the world, sometimes human sacrifices were made there.

The Olmec are considered the parent culture for Central America. Their technology, customs and beliefs will pass down to other civilizations in the area.

To Teotihuacan, The Mayans , the Toltecs and later the Aztecs. Each of these civilizations will also expire.

Incas

In South America, the parent culture for the Inca was the chavin people.

An Incan chief, Pachacuti, united the tribes of the area around Cuzco in Peru.

Then he launched wars of expansion.

The Incan empire expanded along the west coast of South America and east up to Andes Mtns.

From Cuzco, Pachacuti ran an efficient gov't using a chain of command that ran down all the way to the village level. He maintained absolute power.

Nobles and conquered chieftains ran the provinces with officials below them take care to day to day business of enforcing laws and collecting taxes.

To unit their empire the Incas imposed their own language and religion on conquered people.

They built more than 24,000 miles roads using hundreds of bridges and tunnels to cross through mountains

The Incan civilization was at its peak of civilization when they built Machu Picchu high in the Andes

Despite their defeat by the conquistadores, Native American civilization had a influence in the cultures that have developed under the Spanish.

Africa & the Pacific

Early Cultures

Geography of Africa

Africa is the 2nd largest cont.

The continent is split by the equator ensuring that the cont. is warm, but differing amounts of rainfall created several climate zones

Northern Africa is dominated by the world's largest desert the Sahara. The area was savanna, but prehistoric climate change brought about desertification.

In east Africa are headwaters of the Nile River. It's a land of mountains high plateaus and lakes.

Archeologists and anthropologists believe that humanity first evolved in the Great Rift Valley of East Africa.

North and south of the tropical zone is savanna.

The savanna can be farmed and used for herding, but the rainfall is unreliable.

In southern Africa is one of the driest deserts in the world, the Kalahari.

Africa also has thick tropical jungle due to heavy

Rainfall. Along the equator and in Congo River basin.

Early kingdom

Just south of Egypt was Nubia (Sudan), which was source of goods from sub-Saharan Africa, as well as slaves

Around 1000bc the Nubians threw off the Egyptian and formed the kingdom of Kush and then conquered the Egyptians.

From their capital at Meroe, Kush became a center for trade/w Romans, Arabs and Indians till 150AD.

They were iron works to become a center for iron production.

The decline of Kush was caused by an even better trade kingdom known as Axum. Axum was on the coast of the red sea, putting it on the trade route b/w India the Med Sea.

It was competition over the ivory trade that led an Axumite king to conquer the Kush.

Axum had been founded by Arab traders but their culture mixed with African culture to create something unique.

When Islam rose in the 7thAD though conflict erupted as Muslims pushed inland from the red sea and destroyed Axum.

In the first century BC the Bantu people of West Africa began long migrations to find better places to live.

Linguists traced their migrations by studying language roots to modern people.

In the 8th AD descendants of the Bantus joined the trade network on Africa's east coast and set up several city-states.

In southern Africa by 1300AD Bantu people had established the state of Zimbabwe. But there were also gold mines in the area. That gave Zimbabwean kings gold to trade with the cities on the east coast.

The Pacific

This is part of human history we know the least about due to lack of sources.

They are people who left Asia and Africa and wandered on the ocean to east on the ocean going canoes.

Generally they're called Polynesian b/c we are uncertain of their ancestry.

They left some clue (Easter Island) about their eastward migration over a millennium enough so that it is believed that they may have even made it all the way to west coast of South America.

There is a theory that says that we do not know if Asian or Africans leap frog it to the Pacific Ocean or did Native Americans from south America sailed

Classical Greece

750BC-500BC

Geography-studies the interaction of men with his environment

Greece is located on two mountainous peninsulas that jut out into the eastern Med Sea.

The mountains of Greece isolate the people from one another into small farming and fishing settlements. Those grew independent city-state as their civilization revived. They were fiercely independent.

The Aegean, Lonian, and Mediterranean Seas were very important to Greeks for their trade.

The Greeks became skilled sailors travelling to Egypt and points all over the Middle East.

Thanks to trade and better farming, the Greeks saw population explosion that encouraged them to establish colonies in S. France, W. Turkey.

Greek Politics

The word politics comes from the Greek word for city-state polis. The polis is the city, plus all the surrounding farmlands that they can protect.

Assemblies of the people would take place in the agora (open) at the base of the hill. Here all adult male citizens could discuss and decide political issues.

Most Greek city-states also had a king who was expected to lead efforts once a consensus decision was reached by the assembly. Otherwise he powerless: just a figurehead.

World trade created a large class of the wealthy Greeks merchants who decided to use their money to take the power away from the oligarchs. This begins the age of tyrants.

The tyrants of Greece were tyrants only in the sense that they took so much power unto themselves. Many of the tyrants actually did a lot of good for the commoners with that power.

To protect their city-state the Greeks adopted iron weapons which were produced cheaply enough to create well trained infantry.

A new tactic calls the phalanx.

Athens vs. Sparta

Sparta

The Spartan city-state was born in conquest and the conquered became their slaves, called Helots

The Spartans had taken so many helots in their conquests they were actually outnumbered

To keep control of their slaves and their territory the Spartans decided to completely militarize their society

Laws created a military state where all males were raised from birth to strong, tough and infanticide on unfit babies.

From age seven, boys were raised by their military instructors who used harsh and brutal treatment to train and discipline

By age 20 a man began his life as a soldier. Rights of the citizenship could only be granted after a man had served in the army till age 30. They stayed in the till age 60.

Spartan women were expected to keep the home and produce strong healthy baby sons for the army.

The Spartans cut themselves off from other Greeks by forbidding their citizens to travel or trade. They were worried that Spartans might absorb ideas that would destabilize the Spartan Culture

Foreigners were also discouraged from visiting b/c they might bring in "wrong "ideas.

Spartans were discouraged from learning philosophy, literature or the arts.

Athens

Athens like other Greeks city-states began as a monarchy that evolved into an oligarchy. Aristocrats who owned large amounts of the best land used the wealth take political control of the city-state.

Over time though merchants and farmers demanded more rights because of the food and wealth they brought into the city.

Farmers had to sell their land and then themselves and their families into slavery to pay off debts to the wealth people.

Civil war is brewing between the Athenian classes. Civil wars happen when there is too much injustice in a society.

The alarmed oligarchs gave power to one of their own to make some reforms and prevent civil war. His name was Solon

His reform helped but since he refused to redistribute land from the wealthy to the poor.

His name was Peisistratus and he seized total control of the city. To win support he offered things to classes that they wanted.

For the merchants he expanded trade. For the poor he built public works.

Eventually though the Athenians will throw their support behind another tyrant Cleisthenes who will give them democracy rule by the people.

Athens Golden Age

This period really begins after the Greeks have fought the Persian Wars and Athens becomes a powerful empire.

It's a period of great artistic and literary.

It's also when Athens reaches its peak under Pericles

Pericles expanded democracy so that every male over 30 became a member of the assembly. This is known as direct democracy. Could this work for us?

The assembly was the legislature voting on laws, but it also voted on major issues.

Every male was also expected to serve temporarily in gov't posts.

Unlike the Spartans, Athenian males were encouraged to study in many areas, not just perfect their military skills.

Though the Greek city states did share a common culture, that didn't ease the friction that their competitions caused. That's why the Olympics were created…

Eventually the ideological differences b/w Sparta and Athens led to conflict in the Peloponnesian War

The 27 year war cost the life of Pericles and was a loss for Athenians. It also ended any cooperation b/w the city-states

Half a century later all of Greece became ripe for invasion by from Macedonian.

Hellenistic Age

The spread of Greek culture courtesy of Alexander the Great

Greek culture

Much of Greek culture can be summed up in their religion dramatic and architectural arts and their studies of philosophy

Their religion was polytheistic with Zeus king of father of all gods , ruling the universe from the top of .

It includes like all religions a creation myth and plenty of morality tales to teach human beings how the gods expected them live.

Each city-state built a temple to their patron god or goddess.

Much of their Greek religion show up in their dramas or their arts and architecture

Sophocles was a playwright that wrote of the tragedies that face all people both good and bad.

Later Aristophanes will write comedies to poke fun at aristocrats or intellectuals. He wrote satires that make fun of a serious issue or to provoke a response.

Every Greek city-state also used its statuary and architecture as way to compete with other cities. Consequently the Greeks took great pride in magnificent building and put beautiful statues throughout the city.

The Greeks also began true historiography with a man named Herodotus the Father of History. This traveling storyteller gave us a fairly accurate description of the Persian Wars but he was a Greek so

Thucydides however was the first historian to use objectivity when he wrote his history of the Peloponnesian War.

Philosophy

Literally it means lover of wisdom these are people who want to acquire information about the natural world we live in and the laws that govern it. Their studies give us the root of modern scientific investigation.

Philosophy also gives man another way to find his relationship with nature his place in the universe. Religion can do that too but philosophy leaves out the aspect of man's spiritual relationship to nature.

One system of Greek philosophy is called sophism. Sophists believed that moral behavior was less important than success.

To them the end justified the means. If the method brought success then there was no need to worry about whether it was the right thing do.

This was a change in the moral attitude of most Greeks who had believed in honor, loyalty and duty as strong moral principles.

Greek philosophers studied music, art, physics, mathematics and history. They also became the first paid teachers. Men like Socrates, Plato and Aristotle.

Socratic questioning forcing the student to think for themselves by just asking them question. Socrates was Plato's teacher.

Plato wrote The Republic: his ideas about the ideal state and how it should be governed. He wanted an oligarchy of philosophers.

One of the students at the Academy was Aristotle, Plato's famous student.

Aristotle is noted for his studies of the natural world. He used his senses to observe events in nature and then recorded them. By doing this he defined whole new areas of study.

In Politics, Aristotle expressed support for constitutional gov't as the best way to promote the happiness of the people and still keep order in society.

Alexander 334BC

Alexander was of Philip 2 of Macedonia in northern Greece. Philip admired Greek culture so much he got Aristotle to be the teacher for Alexander.

He also wanted to rule Greece so he built a strong army then conquered the squabbling Greek city-states he took Alexander along.

At age 20 Alexander ascended his father's throne and as soon as he did the Greek city-states rebelled against his rule.

From that point on Alexander will spend the rest of his life on military campaign. First to putdown the rebel Greeks, then to conquer the Persian Empire as his wished.

He took his army of Greeks and Macedonians into Asia Minor to attack the powerful Persian Empire. He then took the control Syrian.

Alexander could not stop though not till

After his death

Roman Republic

Rome wisely gave conquered groups the favored status in the empire if they would become allies.

Rome also gave them the hope they could earn the highest status that of Roman citizen, if they proved themselves good allies. This turned enemies into allies.

Membership in the empire did come with benefits: protection of Rome's legions access to all the world's markets for trade.

Punic Wars (264BC)

Only one Mediterranean power could challenge Roman power during this period Carthage. By the third century BC, Carthage had built a powerful trading empire in the western Med and Rome didn't like it.

Rome will fight three wars over hundred year period with Carthage in order to dominate all the lands surrounding the Med Sea.

Rome had a close call in the second war when the Carthaginian general Hannibal brought an army across the Alps and into Italy

For years Hannibal roamed Italy until a Roman army attacked Carthage and Hannibal was recalled to defend the city.

Rome defeated Hannibal's troops Carthage had to give up Spain to Rome and a pay a huge amount of tribute to Rome.

Fifty years later (146BC) Rome would be back completely destroy the city and ensure their dominance of the entire Med. Area.

The Roman Empire

End of the Republic

Rome had become great because of plebian farmers working small amounts of land. These commoners held ideals of honor and duty.

The reward for these plebians was a corrupt Senate of patricians who served for life.

This conflict b/w plebians and the Senate started Rome's first civil war.

Civil wars become a real possibility when Rome allowed generals to form legions that were only loyal to their general not Rome.

Gaius Julius Caesar was one of those generals who decided to use his army to force reform on Rome and the Senate.

He was elected Dictator with complete power by the Senate. This was traditionally a 6 month position but the Senate Believed Caesar intended to proclaim himself king.

This set off another civil war from which Rome will get its first emperor. From this point on the emperor or Caesar will have nearly complete control of Rome and its empire?

The first one was the great-nephew of Gaius Julius his name was Octavian.

Caesars kept the Senate intact though for appearances but kept reducing its power.

Emperors

Rome had no traditions or laws to determine the succession of the emperor a weakness.

At first they just picked their successors usually from their own families. That worked okay as long as they chose wisely and the empire was in stable condition.

That worked for the first five emperors until Nero….

The next five emperors were considered good emperors as they provided a period of peace and prosperity called the Pax Romana lasted 200 years. It ended with the last good emperor Marcus Aurelius.

One common characteristic of almost all Caesars was there desire to add to the empire with new lands, new wealth, and new slaves.

Emperor Hadrian finally halted the growth when he realized there was too much empire to protect and rule. He pulled back and set up defenses on the frontiers.

Still emperors were able to use a combination of diplomacy and war to hold those frontiers for another 250 years.

They were just delaying the inevitable decline through. Rome had lost the values that had made it great. It had become too corrupt.

Wealth and cheap food poured into the city. Circuses and gladiator bouts kept Romans entertained, and clueless about what was really happening to their civilization.

Rome's decline and legacy

Decline

Most romans saw only Rome's greatness, they were blind to the weaknesses of the empire but they were there.

After Marcus Aurelius the problem of succession came back with a vengeance with several civil wars.

A series of generals fought to gain the throne militarily.

Emperors Diocletian and Constantine made reforms but they only delayed the inevitable.

Diocletian broke the empire into four parts to make it easier to rule.

Constantine split the empire into two parts each had an emperor.

Constantine also converted the empire to Christianity hoping it would unite the people.

High taxes stifled trade and production of goods.

Plagues had killed of many people causing a shortage of worked.

Inflation of food prices forced many people to rely on the gov't to be fed with free bread. This was a huge economic expense.

Caesars spent huge sums on themselves and the free games.

Then there was the pressure of barbarian invasion.

Wars in western Asia pushed Asian nomads into the empire where they received land and gold to protect the frontier. They worked with and learned from the legions then they turned and attacked.

In 476AD the last Roman Emperor was deposed.

The tradition values of the Roman society: honor, duty, and service were replaced with ambition and greed.

Christianity discouraged a strong military.

Corrupt politicians that ran an oppressive and authoritarian gov't

Lack of innovation because of Roman reliance on slave

Legacy

Constantine's Byzantine Empire will preserve much of Rome's culture for another 1000 years.

The Romance Languages are derived from Latin-Spanish, French, Italian and Romanian.

The Greco-Roman culture spreads the ideas of representative gov't.

Most significant was the lasting influence of the Roman legal system including the ideas of right of the citizen.

India

India's Geography

The Indian 'subcontinent' is at the southern tip of Asia, across the Himalaya Mtns.

Just below the Himalayas are two river valleys, the Indus and the Ganges. These areas will the cradle of India's first civilization.

Further south is the Deccan plateau; hot and dry it takes up most of the interior of India.

Coastal plains on both coasts are ideal for agriculture as well, but are dependent on.

Indus Valley 2500BC

Just like Mesopotamia and Egypt; the key to civilization is farming and the key to farming were rivers. For some reason thought this one will only last about 1000 years.

They built two well organized cities according to plans that included a grid pattern for streets and public fountains.

The Aryans: The Vedic Age 1500BC

The decline of the Indus people also marked the arrival of nomadic warriors from Central Asia known as the Aryans.

The Aryans had no written language so all we know about them comes from a collection of memorized stories and religious teachings called the Vedas.

Aryan and Dravidic culture merged over time.

Hindi

As Aryans finished their conquest of Indian, new kingdoms were born, each ruled by a rajah.

Their society was very rigid with a class structure of four castes: Brahmins, Kshatriyas, Vaisyas, and Sudras. Then there were the untouchables at the bottom.

China

Early Dynasties

Geography

Chinese civilization was born b/w two rivers: The Huang He (Yellow) and the Yangtze. The area was one of the most fertile areas in the world allowing for the growth of a huge population.

China is isolated from the rest of Asia by geographical boundaries: The Gobi Desert in the north, mountains to the west and south, thick jungle to southeast and the Pacific Ocean to the east.

The Chinese culture will be built on agricultural production, as the floods of the Yellow and Yangtze Rivers renewed the land each year with fresh layer of silt.

The flooding was often unpredictable and dangerous, so the first rulers would spend great effort on building reservoirs and dykes to contain the flooding.

A large country like China will cross many lines of latitude giving it a variety of climates. The south will have monsoon seasons and the north will have cold snowy winters.

Dynasties

Shang Dynasty (2nd one) 1750BC-1045BC

A society made up mostly of peasant farmers but ruled over by the landowning aristocracy and led by a warrior king.

Shang kings were mostly concerned with war and trying to protect their precious farmlands.

They believed in many gods, and occasionally human sacrifice. Early Chinese culture also believed that their dead ancestors acting as spirits could bring good fortune or bad.

Zhou Dynasty 1045BC-256BC

The end of the Shang dynasty was brought about by the first of the Zhou dynasty. He rebelled against the emperor claiming the Mandate of Heaven.

Dynasty Cycle: Dynasty is young and energetic power is established with new laws and infrastructure to help the people.

2. Dynasty begins a slow decline with creeping corruption maintenance of infrastructure.

3. Invasion or revolt creates a new mandate of heaven.

The Zhou followed this pattern too, but this dynasty must have had many capable rulers to hang on to power for so long.

During their long rule they will increase trade. More land was brought under the plow with large irrigation project, and the plows were made out of iron.

China's character writing system began during this period. Symbols called ideographs represented object or ideas, putting system together represented sentences.

Chinese Philosophy

551BC-Confucius was a political science teacher that wanted greater morality and justice in society.

In the Analects he states that people should have two main concerns duty and humanity.

-Humanity: treat all people with respect and consideration.

-"He gives us the ideas of: a 'work' ethic will be rewarded, and "do unto to others"….

Daoism

Laozi created a system of thought based on this idea: there is order to the universe and that order is kept in balance by "Heaven". Heaven is a law of nature, not god.

Daoism isn't interested in creating better gov't like Confucius, though they both want people to behave ethically and morally.

They 'way' consist of staying in harmony with the order of the universe. The best was to do that was by inaction; don't interfere with the order of nature. "Go with the flow".

Legalism

Another thing Confucianism and Daoism had in common been the belief that human beings were basically good.

Legalism assumes all people are evil because they only act of self-interest. Therefore they would only obey they ruler if there were strict laws and harsh punishment.

With such selfish subjects, rulers don't need to rule with compassion and consideration

The Qin Dynasty 221BC-206BC

A warlord named Qin Shihaungdi finally conquered enough other warlords to end the 'warring states period'. He proclaimed a mandate of heaven and founded the Qin dynasty. Since he united all of China under his rule, he was its first emperor.

Using absolute power, the Qin emperor created a unified currency, built a system of roads and began construction of the Great Wall of China to stop Asian nomads from raiding.

His harsh rule coasts his son a reign, after his death the people rebelled and a new dynasty.

Han Dynasty

A peasant named Li Pang led the revolt against the Qin and won. After declaring his dynasty The Han emperor replaced legalism with Confucian principles to run the gov't.

Under Wudi the Han become a great dynasty with great achievements; even today Chinese refer to themselves as "people of the Han".

Paper and the printing press were invented. New text books were written on chemistry, botany, zoology, and biology.

Later Han emperors become corrupt and lazy; the aristocrats took advantage of the peasants and the caused another peasant revolt.

For four hundred years no dynasty ruled during the Age of Disunity.

World Religions

Polytheism

Beginning with the earliest humans, religion is man's way of finding a spiritual connection between his existences and the universe he lives in. It's a way for man to interpret/understand the world he lives in.

The earliest recorded histories talk about people's polytheistic religions, where aspects of nature are personified as 'god': i.e. sun god, rain god, ocean god, goddess of fertility.

The system gave the people something to pray to, giving them some feeling of control over the chaos of nature.

As civilization grew, their simple belief system was expanded by a new class in society who claimed to understand what the gods wanted, priests.

Elaborate rituals and ceremonies were created to show obedience and sacrifice to the gods so that they would provide blessings.

Judaism

The Hebrews believed that their God, known as Yahweh, was the only 'true' God, and he created and ruled the universe.

They were a severely tested people, but that led to a covenant, or agreement with; they alone were His chosen people.

He had given them 10 laws to guide them, and land that would be theirs is forever. At that time it was known as Canaan.

Then they were conquered by the Romans. After a revolt in the first century AD, the 'Diaspora' scattered the Jews to Europe and Africa.

It would take nearly 2000 years for the Jews to get a country of their own again.

Despite facing prejudice and oppression everywhere they went, The Jews survived because of their commitment to their faith.

Persecution came from Christians who believed the Jews had murdered their savior.

Later Jews will be targeted by Muslims for taking back land to create the state of Israel.

Hundreds of thousands have died in the wars between Muslims and Jews, since 1947.

Christianity

Before the Jews were scattered out of Judea, The son of carpenter was baptized to begin his future preaching and performing miracles among the Jews.

His sermons of love and peace, and eternal life with god gained him followers but also enemies. His enemies plotted his death at the hands of the Romans.

Words of his resurrection spread. His follower multiplied. It helped that his apostles carried his teachings.

In the following his life, Christ's teachings were written down and this literature become the basis for the 'New Testament'.

Rome didn't trust this new religion anyone then they trusted the Jews, and like the Jews, They chose to persecute the Christians to prevent its spread.

They martyred thousands of Christians but it had the opposite result; their extreme acts of faith won converts away from Rome's polytheism to committed converts.

Christian churches sprang up in many towns and cities. Leaders of the church become organized as priest and bishops to lead the members.

Message, organization, and a deep commitment by early Christians guaranteed that the Christian faith was not going to fade away.

Eventually Emperor Constantine will convert to Christianity and Emperor Theodosius will make it the official religion of empire.

Islam

Like most ancient people, The Arabs of the southwest Asia were polytheistic. That would change with the rise of Mohammed in the 7th Century AD.

Mohammad was concerned by the lack of morality in Arab society, so he went to meditate on his concerns in the hills near his home, the town of Mecca.

In a cave he received revelation from God. Those revelations convinced him that Moses and Jesus had been prophets of God's will, but he also believed he was God's final prophet.

These revelations were eventually written down as the Quran, the book of Islam.

Followed didn't just submit to God, They also submitted to Mohammed. In Islam that means spiritual leaders are also the political leaders.

The foundation of the faith was placed on the Five Pillars of Islam which were meant to teach people moral and ethical behavior.

Mohammed began preaching against the greed and corruption of the wealthy, but he and his few followers were persecuted.

He decided to move his followers to Medina to win converts there (hegira). Mohammed was more successful winning converts, even among the wandering Arabs known as Bedouin, fierce nomadic warrior tribes.

These converts became an army that was used to force the conversion of the rest of the Arabs (jihad). Later these armies were turned on all infidels; any people who refused to submit to Allah.

After his death Mohammed's successors built a Muslim Empire called a caliphate.

The Muslim caliphant only lasted a few centuries before it crumbled into many Islamic countries due to internal power struggles.

East Asian Religions

Hinduism & Buddhism

Hinduism 6th C. BC

Hinduism was merging of Aryan beliefs and Dravidian practices into new religion; a religion whose ultimate goal was to reunite the part of God that lived in people, with God.

For ordinary Indians though, Brahman became three gods: Brahma, Vishnu, and Shiva.

The basic tenet of Hinduism is in reincarnation, or the rebirth of the soul into new life-forms. The new form of life born into would depend on the person's karma earned in their previous life.

A person earned good karma when they act in accordance with dharma, or divine law. Hindus must obey dharma, their duties in life, if they want nirvana and to escape the 'wheel of life'.

The 'wheel of life' is the cycle of rebirth, life and death. To escape means nirvana or merger with Brahman.

The caste a person was born into determined their dharma, and the duties they must follow in that life.

No matter what that duty was they should accept it, and not desire anything more. Then they will be rewarded with a higher caste in their next incarnation.

This religion justified India's strict caste system. Though the system is not as strict today, and most Indians remain Hindus.

Buddhism

His first name was Siddhartha Gautama, and he was born a privileged prince.

His compassion for suffering of others however forced him to give up his position, wife and family. Instead he set out on a quest for a cure to all that suffering.

He became an ascetic, denying himself all physical comforts, but that didn't lead to enlightenment.

Then mythology says he sat down under a fig tree, for 48 days, and enlightenment came.

The Four Noble truths

Ordinary life is full of suffering

Suffering is caused by a continuous desires

Avoid suffering by ending desires for selfish goals.

End desires by following the Following the Eightfold Path.

Buddha did not believe in the caste system, instead he believed people could earn nirvana in one life.

Buddhism was simpler then Hinduism and offered the lower castes a better hope for nirvana. Buddha actually converted most of his followers outside of India, in S.E. Asia, China, Korea, and Japan.

Southeast Asia

Geography

Southeast Asia lies along the equator, giving it a tropical climate, which means hot and humid.

Mountains on the mainland divided the people there this means little contact b/w farming groups living the river valleys.

Further south, in the Indonesia archipelago groups of diverse races and cultures will live independently of one another, but in close proximity

Indo-China Peninsula

There were four states in ancient times: Vietnam, Thailand, Angkor (Cambodia & Laos), and Burma.

All those states had to deal with powerful neighbors, either Indian or Chinese. Consequently when they began to form states, it was usually on either one of those cultural models.

Vietnam stubbornly held off the Chinese for a while, but they were conquered. When they got their independence again they adopted Chinese gov't and Confucian policies.

The Angkor kingdom controlled most of the mainland for a time, till their capital was destroyed by and invasion of the Thai. Then the Khmer people moved south and established Cambodia near Phnom Penh.

The Thai, who were fleeing from the Mongols, set up a kingdom in the western part of the mainland and imported Hindi influences, though most people converted to Buddhism. This blending is called Thailand today.

Modern Burma started out as the Pagan civilization. Like the Thai they adopted Hindi influence, but converted to Buddhism.

Malay Peninsula

This area developed differently than the mainland b/c the islands of the Indonesian archipelago were tied together by the sea.

The Malay people were all racially related but they were never united under a single ruler. There were many separate communities.

Most of these people had adopted Indian influences, but when IsIam arrived just about the entire population of Indonesia converted to IsIam and created a sultanate.

Like in other early farming civilizations most of the land was owned by a hereditary aristocracy, with a large number of peasant farmers paying their rents and taxes with rice.

As civilizations were established .

Expansion of Muslim Rule

India and Persia

India and Islam

In the early 7th C. AD, Islam arrived in the Indus River valley. First just peaceful Arab settlers, but later came to conquering Turks who moved into India.

Around 1200AD, after capturing the northern plain and the city of Delhi, they founded the Delhi Sultanate.

After 200 more years the sultanate will cover the Deccan Plateau too.

The Delhi Sultanate ended w/the invasion of a Muslim leader from Mongolia. His name was Tamerlane and he arrived by 1400AD.

Tamerlane w/draws, and leaves a shattered India behind for less powerful sultans of Delhi to try and put back together.

In 1526AD another Mongol leader, named Babur, will invade India. Though his grandson Akbar will have to complete the conquest

Babur used artillery to great advantage, the Muslim and Hindi kingdoms couldn't resist.

Babur and his dynasty will successfully rule India until 1857. His dynasty was successful in part b/c they were tolerant Muslim rulers. They allowed the rituals of Hinduism of continue.

India provided cotton, opium and precious gems to England's network of world trade. Chess, tea.

Persia's 2nd Empire

Persia's 2nd empire was founded when a 14 year old warrior took his army and conquered much of Central Asia. The Caspian Sea to Arabian Sea. From the border of India to the border of the Ottoman Empire.

The Safavid dynasty will rule using the title shah or king based on Shia Islam. They ruled with absolute power under Sharia law.

The short live empire had a short lived peak under Shah Abbas, but later shahs were too weak to hold out against.

China, Korea, and Japan

Sui Dynasty (581 AD)

After the Han, two Sui emperors managed to reunite portions of China.

They finished the Grand Canal which connected the Huang He to the Yangtze. This increased the ability to move rice north and south within the empire.

They also continued building and expanding the Great Wall.

High taxes, forced military service and forced labor for building projects caused a revolt against the Sui emperor, and he lost the Mandate of Heaven.

Tang Dynasty 618-907AD

A Sui general led the revolt, and he established the Tang dynasty. He instituted land reform to give land back to the peasants and break the power of the aristocrats.

During the Tang dynasty the size of the country expanded and China forced Korea and Vietnam to become tributary state.

Buddhism, Islam, and Christianity will also be introduced to China during this period. Most Chinese adopted Buddhism very quickly.

Wealthy Chinese donated wealth and land to the Buddhist monasteries, so that they could be turned into schools, hospital and libraries.

The emperor and his Confucian officials become jealous of all that wealth and power, so they sent in the troops to seize the wealth and destroy thousands of Buddhist temples.

This probably helped to contribute to the unrest that caused the fall the Tang emperor.

Sixty years later rose the first Song emperor, in 960AD. This was a period of prosperity for China, but shrinking territory. By 1279AD the Song had been conquered by the Mongols.

Japan

Japan's geography is four main and thousands of smaller ones. The islands are close enough to China for cultural diffusion through Korea, but far enough way to avoid conquest.

Japanese islands are volcanic which makes the soil fertile for rice production, but they're also mountainous which means very little arable land.

Early Japanese arrived as clans on the island of Honshu. Each clan leader promised to protect the farmers and artisans in return for a portion the harvests or goods.

A Yamato clan leader eventually defeated enough of the warriors of neighboring clans that they submitted to him as the first Japanese emperor.

When Prince Shotoku Taishi becomes the 'power behind the throne', he sent scholars to study at Chinese school in order to copy their centralized system of gov't.

In order to increase his own power and decrease the power of the aristocrats, he put out the story that the Yamato family was descended from the goddess of the sun Amaterasu.

It worked, the Yamato emperors got absolutes power. Then Taishi reformed the gov't into provinces with the local governors appointed by the emperor. This was an attempt to keep the governors honest and loyal.

Taishi's successors tried to make sure all tax revenues were paid directly to central gov't. During the Nara period however lords started keeping all the tax money for themselves.

Little money went to the imperial court, so their political power declined. The emperor was still a god though, so he and his court would be kept in a lavish lifestyle at the capital while the nobles, known as daimyo, ruled the lands.

The daimyo relied on large armies of samurai to enforce their will. This led to constant warfare between the local lords.

Yoritomo Minamoto founded the Kamakura Shogunate when he became the first supreme warlord, or shogun, in 1185AD by defeating several of his rivals.

In time to meet two invasions by the Mongols beginning in 1281AD, the Japanese got lucky however b/c both invasion fleet by typhoons.

The Shogunate was overthrown though in 1333AD and Japan was forced to form a feudal society as a result of the constant warfare. This was Japan's feudal age.

In 15th AD Toyotomi Hideyoshi crushes many of the daimyo and forced other to accept his rule. He dies trying to conquer Korea.

His successor is the Tokugawa leyasu who proclaim himself Shougun in 1603AD, and moves the capital to Edo (Tokyo)

Tokugawa started the 'great peace' in Japan, which lasted until 1868AD. He did it by cutting off all contact w/ the outside world. Only the Portuguese were allowed to visit and trade.

Korea

Korea is a peninsula b/w China and Japan. It was a mountainous country that was difficult to reach, or unify. Korea adopted much of its culture from the Chinese, though Korea's language and traditions remained their own.

After learning farming and bronze technology, three kingdoms rose, but were constantly at war till one got help from the Tang Chinese to unite the peninsula. Later the Koreans too fell to the Mongols.

Eventually a Korean warlord would throw out the Mongols in 1392AD, and the Koreans would have their independence for 500 years under the protection of Chinese emperors.

The Mongols

Genghis Khan

The Mongols were a group of herding tribes that lived on the plains of Central Asia. The Mongols raised small but quick ponies well adapted to the hot dry conditions.

Violence was common between clans, and that ensured these warriors learned how to be one of the best light cavalries the world is ever seen.

When he was a boy Temujin's clan was wiped out in a clan raid and he was captured as a slave. He would rise to great rule (khan) over all the Mongol tribes in 1206AD.

Genghis Khan created the largest empire in history covering most of the Eurasian landmass, and his conquest was not gentle.

The conquests of the 'Yellow Horde' killed millions and displaced millions more. When it was done the Mongols ruled from Central Europe to the Pacific Ocean.

After the great khan's death his sons divided his empire into five khanates.

Kublai Khan, Temujin's grandson, completed the conquest of China and established a new Mongol (Yuan) dynasty in the Chinese capital, Beijing.

The Mongols adapted Chinese gov't to their own needs and used only Mongols in the highest positions. The Mongols had to depend on the Chinese bureaucracy though to manage the mass wealth brought in by the Silk Road.

Ideas and technology will also travel the road. That's how Europe learned of the compass, gunpowder, and chess. Even though it was a closely guarded state secret, even the production of silk eventually made it to Europe.

Marco Polo, an Italian merchant, traveled that road to visit China in the 13th

Stories of his travels will fire the imagination of European explorers like Prince Henry and Columbus and lead to Age of Exploration.

The Yuan dynasty fell to same ills as other Chinese dynasties. The Mongols forgot 'who they were', they became lazy and corrupt.

Franks & Saxons

Europe's Early Middle-Ages

500AD-1000AD

Europe is part of the Asian landmass. It's located on the western edge of Asia. Geographers place Europe b/w the Iberian Peninsula in the west to the Ural Mountain of Russia in the East.

By the middle of the 5th AD the Western Roman Empire had been overrun by Germanic tribes. The Roman civilization disappeared.

Angles & Saxons took Britain, Visigoths took Spain, and Ostrogoths took Italy and The Franks to Gaul/France. Each tribe chieftain became the first kings of Europe.

The only Germanic kingdom to last though was the Franks, and that was b/c of the Clovis. He united his tribe and defeated other Germans to establish the Carolingian dynasty in France.

He benefited from his alliance with the new Roman Catholic Church, after his conversion and baptism. That also won him support from Christian Gauls.

The Germans had no written language or laws. Their tribal society only had oral histories and tradition. Overtime though Roman culture, Christianity and Germanic traditions merged to form a new culture.

Catholic Church

Formed in Rome from the work of the apostles, especially Peter, in the 4th AD, The bishop of Rome gradually increased his power over all Christians and became Pope, the successor to Saint Peter. Their writings and the work of the other early Christians created the New Testament of the bible that the Catholic Church will use to teach the pagan Germans how to be Christians, and hopefully 'civilize' them.

Monasteries that operated as school and hospitals, monks who performed good works, won many coverts among the Germans.

In 732AD Christian Europe was threatened for the first time by an Islamic invasion but it was defeated by a Frankish knight named Charles Martel at the Battle of Tours in southern France.

Martel's son, Pepin, later seized the crown of France. When he died, his son became the new king of the Franks. He was Europe's greatest king in the middle-ages, Charles the great aka Charlemagne.

Charlemagne spent much of his life fighting to reunite Roman Europe. He never lost a battle as he created an empire that controlled most of western and central Europe.

In 800AD the pope requested that Charlemagne come fight to defend Rome and the church, when he succeeded the Pope crowned him 'Holy Roman Emperor'.

The church had acknowledged him as the legitimate ruler of Christian Europe. This marks the beginning of a new civilization for Europe.

Charlemagne worked hard to promote education. He collected Greek and Roman manuscripts into a library, then sponsored a school around the library. He also learned to read and write.

Charlemagne's gov't consisted for a household staff and royal inspectors. He expected nobles that he had given land grants, to keep the peace and enforce his royal laws.

This is known as feudalism. It will be the political and social system in Europe for the next 700 years.

When Charlemagne died his three grandsons split the empire into three parts ending the Carolingian Empire.

Saxons

The Angles and Saxons were Germanic tribes that crossed the channel separating Britain from France. The natives were known as Britons and they had been conquered earlier by the Romans.

As Rome withdrew its legions the Britons were left defenseless. First the Angles swept in but they were soon followed by the Saxons.

Several small Anglo-Saxon kingdoms were established in the south by the end of the 5th AD. In northern England the Vikings

Thanks to continuing threats of invasion from other Germans and the Vikings, the kings of England also adopted the feudal system. In 1066AD William Duke of Normandy invaded across the English Channel and defeated the last Saxon king, Harold.

William gave out land grants to his knight and nobles, and they took control. They were the last successful .

Europe's High Middle Ages

1000AD to 1500AD

30 years after his, Charlemagne's grandsons signed the Treaty of Verdun. It divided the empire into three parts, which weakened the ability of all three to protect themselves.

At a time when Asian nomads called Magyars fought their way into central Europe. They settled in Hungary and made their neighbors nervous.

The Muslims hadn't gone away very far. They controlled southern Spain and raided southern France. They also had Corsica, Sardinia, and Sicily; island close to Italy.

The major menaces though were the Vikings of Scandinavia. Overpopulation in their homelands was driving them out to raid, trade and colonize. Europeans were fearful b/c Vikings on raid often left no one alive. Even when they fought against knights and soldiers, they were such fierce warriors that they won the battles.

Skilled boat-smiths and sailors they took their long boats to every corner of Europe, and even to North America. Those boats allowed the Vikings to raid almost anywhere. The Vikings weren't always raiding though sometimes they explored just to find new trade. Their boats allowed them to search the world for new goods.

When they found good land they sometimes settled in to build farms and trading posts too. Over time the Vikings became Europeans.

Charlemagne's successors fought for the rest of their lives to hold on to their pieces of the empire, and slowly but surely they lost ground. People had no choice but to turn to the local lords for protection, which increased their power. They in turn crowed themselves kings or princes.

Kings ruled in their own names and according to their own desires. They handed out fiefs to their vassals. The only control on their abuse of power, Lords and their vassals went to war each summer to enlarge their fiefs at the expense of their neighbors. The peasant serfs were usually caught in the middle.

Feudal System

At the top was the king who 'owned' all the land. He could also tax, and hold monopolies. Land was the source of political and economic power, so he could win support by giving fiefs.

Great lords in turn gave out grants from their own fiefs to gain lesser lord as vassals. All the way down to knights who had just enough land to support themselves.

The Manor

Each fief included a manor. The manor was the castle, and the village for the serfs. Serfs generally lived short hard lives, even when they had a good lord.

All resources on the land belonged to the lord, but the serfs were given a home to live in, a small plot of land. The serfs spend most of their time as servants in the castle, craftsmen producing goods for the lord and his family.

Serfs, and their children, are tied to the fief for a lifetime of service in return for protection and the lord's support. They have rights, but are not free.

Knights and Chivalry

Kings and lords used their revenue to build fortified homes for their families and in time of attack the people. From this power base they sent out their knights to control the countryside.

The lord with the most land could support the most knights, and they were the key to his fighting forces. They fought and commanded his soldiers.

The knight was the 'tank' of his day. Heavily armed, armored and mounted. They trained from boyhood; they learn to fight from horseback or on foot, with a variety of weapons.

To protect society from violent men who have nothing else to do, medieval society adopted a code of behavior called chivalry.

Kingdoms of the middle Ages

During the high middle ages, modern Europe began to take shape as kings through diplomacy, intrigue and war gained power at the expense of their vassals.

His son, King John, will sign the Magna Carta. This was England's first step towards constitutional monarchy, and giving rights to citizens.

Philip II of France was another king who managed to increase his power and wealth at the expense of the French dukes

Philip began a series of wars with England to throw them out of France. This began a long period of warfare that will stretch into the 16th C.

Louis IX created courts and a bureaucracy that will give the French people a stronger country. Eventually Philip IV

Otto I was a Duke of Saxony, essentially making him king of the western Franks, or what would become Germany.

To Otto and his successors, Frederick

Byzantium

Constantinople

In the 3rd C. AD, the Roman emperor Constantine chose the site of abandoned Greek city called Byzantium on the Bosporus Strait to be the capital of his new Eastern Roman Empire. From this position the lifeblood of Constantinople will be world trade.

He decided to call it Constantinople and spared no expense at building the greatest city of the world.

Their language was Greek as much of their art, but their engineering and laws were Roman. Their religion was Christian.

Emperors even claimed that they were God's representatives on Earth. Divine Right- God's rule of the people

It increased the political power of the church b/c only it could grant spiritual legitimacy to the kings of Europe as this doctrine spread across Europe.

After the fall of Rome only the eastern empire was left to preserve Greco-Roman culture. At the same time though the culture was very dynamic b/c it existed at the crossroads of the world: where east meets west.

Merchants, pilgrims and soldiers from all over the world passed through Constantinople. So much cultural exchange gave the eastern empire a much a more flexible attitude and openness to new ideas.

Though Byzantine emperors were tolerant towards their Islamic subjects

Justinian 527AD-565AD

When Justinian becomes emperor he dreamed of re-conquering the western half of the Roman Empire.

In a series of expensive wars he will regain Italy, North Africa, the middle-east, and Asia Minor.

This will not be his great legacy however as his conquest were re-taken soon after his death.

Justinian left two legacies.

His other legacy was law code that formed the basis for the modern

Renaissance 1350-1550AD

Birth of the modern European Culture

Italian Renaissance

During the middle-ages knowledge had decreased and so hard the quality of life of the people. The Renaissance signals and reversal of the decline, and the birth of a new culture.

From 1350 to 1550 classical knowledge was returning to Europe, inspiring thinkers and scholars to increase their curiosity about the world and nature.

The shift in attitude began in Italy b/c Italian city-states were the centers of recovery. These urban areas were politically stable, and places of learning and art. They also had Roman ruins all around them to inspire them.

The Italian Renaissance is also based on an increasing optimism about human potential. If humans can accomplish more, then they should work to achieve all of their potential.

The Renaissance resulted in wonderful artistic (David), scientific (Galileo) and technological (glider) achievements.

From Italy, Renaissance ideals spread throughout the rest of Europe. Boys from wealthy families all over Europe were sent to Italian schools to study under a humanist philosophy.

Italian Politics

Italy was divided among several city-states. Each trying to increase its power and control over Italy at the expense of the others

In Florence the city was ruled by Cosimo De Medici, then later his grandson Lorenzo. They led an oligarchy of merchants that ruled the city of Florence.

Eventually the divisions among the Italians allowed the French and Spanish to march armies into the country and fight a 30 year war which left the Spanish in charge of the country. That ended the Italian wars.

The Italian Renaissance is mostly thought of in terms of its artistic achievements. Art based on a new focus: realism.

In all the city states, but especially Florence, thousands of new marble statues, gov't building, palaces, and paintings were created to please the eye of the city residents and the rich who paid for it.

Leonardo da Vinci painted the Last Supper, Michelangelo painted the Sistine Chapel, and Raphael painted Madonna and Child.

Machiavelli

Niccolo Machiavelli used his experiences as a diplomat to write his observations on how power was used amongst the Italian city-states.

Machiavelli-believed that "the end justifies the mean" any action that preserves power/control is a 'good action, no matter what that action was.

Ruling according to Christian principles would only doom the state. "It is good to be loved, but if you cannot loved, it is better to be feared.-Niccolo

Northern Europe's Renaissance

Northern Europe had suffered worse from wars and plagues in the middle ages, so it took longer to recover and rebuild cities and grow wealthy classes that support a Renaissance.

Albrecht Durer is referred to as the German 'Leonardo'; he made two trips to study in Italy and brought back to new ideas to Germany.

Renaissance painters of northern Europe did stress realism, but they also tried to increase details in their paintings. They also oftentimes chose everyday scenes of life to paint, not just religious subjects or the wealthy and powerful.

Renaissance Culture

The renaissance also created the Baroque period of culture achievement.

This was the age of William Shakespeare with brilliant comedic and tragic storylines that are still used today.

Miguel De Cervantes wrote Don Quixote.

Much different than the dark Gothic cathedrals of the middle-ages

'Classical music' becomes the first popular music with recognized composers and songs.

The Reformation

The division of the Catholic faith

Christian Humanism was idea that came from the northern European Renaissance. Christian Humanists were hoping that by living a more moral and Christian lives, then the Catholic Church would be forced to reform itself.

The Dutch Humanist Desiderius Erasmus was a writer and thinker of his time. He was a pious man, but he felt that the Catholic Church focused on meaningless ceremonies, rituals and doctrine instead of teaching people how to live a Christian life.

Erasmus wrote The Praise of Folly in 1509 to satirize what he saw as immorality in society, especially in the clergy.

High clergy could only come from the families of nobles. They were the second and third sons which needed lifetime jobs of ease and luxury.

They lived in palaces, ate at banquets, married and had children. Many also played in politics too, in a very 'Machiavellian' way.

What bothered humanist the most though was the selling of indulgences by the clergy.

Most people's contact with the church hierarchy was through their local parish priest, who probably came from the same peasant background as the parishioners.

Most parish priests were also too 'worldly' to provide much spiritual leadership. Those who truly cared about their parishioners could do little for them.

Common people had little 'say' in their own church. Though disgust was building within the church among the more devout, it will still take time and an important step before catholics, humanists and clergy, demanded reform.

Martin Luther

Luther didn't plan on becoming a rebel, but he found that some ideas are worth fighting for. He was a theologian working in Wittenburg Germany studying a problem, "How do Christians guarantee salvation?"

At the same time though, he also noticed how the clergy of the Catholic Church were corrupt and self-indulgent.

Luther really had a problem with a fellow monk Johann Tetzel, who promised that as soon as he had your money your loved one was immediately released from purgatory.

Luther then wrote his 95 Thesis in 1517AD. It was 95 arguments against church doctrine. He argued that faith alone was enough to earn salvation; he also attacked the sale of indulgences.

Martin Luther didn't stop there, and the more he questioned and criticized, the more the pope and cardinals felt the church was under attack, so they tried to force Luther to recant his statements.

When Luther refused he was excommunicated by the pope and declared outlaw by the Edict of Worms by The Holy Roman Emperor.

Luther had a powerful protector though that kept Luther from being hunted down and killed.

Luther was then free to write down the basis for the first Protestant faith: Lutheranism. He created a whole new church based on his ideas.

Lutheranism and Germany

The Holy Roman Emperor Charles V wanted to use Catholicism to unite his empire which stretched from Spain to Hungary, and covered most of center Europe. To him, Lutheranism was a threat to his control of his empire.

He wanted to take an army to Germany to capture and punish Luther, but he was always distracted w/ other problems. When he finally did march, it was too late.

Prince who sided with Luther had reasons to do so: They saw corruption in the church, they would no longer send to church tax to serve Italy, it stayed in to help Germans.

A civil war, that was also a religious war, broke out among the princes. Though a civil war, king of Sweden and France also sent troops. These Foreign mercenaries were brutal to the Germans.

Protestantism Spreads and Divides

In Switzerland, a Catholic monk named Ulrich Zwingli began a Protestant movement but was killed in battle against Catholics.

By 1536AD John Calvin led the Swiss movement. Calvin's contribution to Protestantism was the idea of predestination.

Predestination still requires faith for salvation, and by that faith God already knows who is to be 'saved'. Those with faith are predestined for heaven.

Calvinism spread to other parts of Europe and replaces Lutheranism as the diver of the Protestant movement in Europe.

Henry VIII (Tudor) of England

Henry, who had been named "defender of the faith" by the pope for attacking Martin Luther, decides to break away from the church anyway.

Henry had been married to Catherine of Aragon for 18 years when he asked the pope to annul their marriage so that he could marry a younger woman who might give him heir.

For political reasons the pope refused, so Henry ordered the Archbishop of Canterbury, England's highest church official, to give him the annulment. Henry had defied the pope.

Henry with the support of Archbishop Thomas Cranmer decided he needed to be the head of the church in England.

In 1534AD England's Parliament passed the Act of Supremacy. It separated the "Anglican Church" from the Catholic Church. It also made the king the head of the church.

The Tudors

When Henry died his 9 year old son Edward became king. The regent for the king was a Protestant that pushed the Anglican Church in the direction of Calvinism.

When Edward died a few years later, his older sister Mary become queen 1553AD. "Bloody" Mary had been raised as a Catholic and vowed to bring England back into the 'true' church.

When Mary's younger sister Elizabeth became queen she created compromises that satisfied both Protestants and former Catholic. Religious turmoil died down in England.

Radical Protestants

Luther had opened the door for religious revolts, and other more radically different ideas came through it, not just his moderate reforms. Protestant churches gave gov't participation in the religious life of the people. Anabaptists felt that there should be complete separation religious and state. They were also against infant baptism; b/c babies can't make a voluntary commitment to lead a Christian life.

Anti-Semitism

The Diaspora of the Jews in the 1st C. AD had forced them to migrate and settle throughout the world, but mostly in Europe.

Anti-Semitism was common among Christians b/c Jews were blamed for the death of Christ. Jews were tolerated, but never accepted. They were the first to be blamed and attacked if there was a crisis or danger.

Catholic Reformation

The Catholic Church had to make changes if it was going to defend itself and stop losing members.

Ignatius Loyola founded a new order of monks that swore absolute obedience to the pope. They would become his teachers and missionaries to recruit, or reconvert, members for the church.

The Church of Trent reviewed church doctrines for possible changes. After 18 years of meetings they changed very little, but did outlaw the selling of indulgences.

Scientific Revolution

16th & 17th Centuries

The basis for the Renaissance had been the revival of Greco-Roman Knowledge. Philosophers of the middle-ages didn't question these ancient experts.

Combined with Christian beliefs, they constructed a view of the universe, but never question whether it was correct or not.

Plato, Aristotle, Archimedes and others were just accepted as the experts on the natural world. It was felt there was nothing left to learn about the natural world that hadn't already been explained.

The Scientific Revolution therefore had to begin with the questioning of the 'experts'. People were becoming more curious. That was just one factor encouraging a change in attitude though.

New instruments like the telescope and microscope made new detailed observations of the natural world possible.

Improvements in mathematics made more detailed calculations possible to 'test' those observations. Mathematics provides the factual basis for many new ideas, called theories.

Since Christianity used the Ptolemaic view of the universe in it doctrine, church leaders felt threatened by the heliocentric theory.

Church leaders ordered Galileo to recant; he did under threat of torture and death in the Inquistion.

Despite the church's attempts to censor (stop the flow of info.) the heliocentric theory become commonly accepted knowledge, especially after Newton's contribution to the idea.

It became the 'natural law'. This meant that nature had the order that could be studied and understood, scientifically.

Other Scientific Discoveries

Robert Boyle: chemist that identified some of the basic building blocks of matter, the element.

Andreas Vesalius writes an anatomy textbook.

Ambrose Pare creates an antiseptic ointment and closes wounds with stitches.

Physician William Harvey describes the vascular system, how blood moves throughout the body.

Rationalism

It didn't take long for philosophy to catch up to the Scientific Revolution.

Rene Descartes believed that ancient truth should be put aside, so that man's reason can be used to understand knowledge.

Francis Bacon agreed with Descartes, but Bacon added inductive reasoning. Using observation and experimentation to prove that man's reasoning was actually correct. He is credited with developing the scientific method.

Bacon also felt that science should be used to improve the quality of life for man. To control mature to give man a better form of life.

The Scientific Revolution also helped to usher in another age in Europe, The Enlightenment.

The Enlightenment

The Age of Reason in the 18th Century

Thanks to the Scientific Revolution the people of Europe were ready to throw away holdovers from the Middle Ages; superstition and a complete dependency on the church as the source of truth.

The goal was to create a more just and peaceful world that would benefit everyone, particularity the masses of peasants of Europe.

Locke & Newton

John Locke was an English philosopher that started that people are the products of the influences of their environments. If human environment were improved then man could create a better society for all people.

Newton's idea about the existence of natural laws allowing us to control nature was also extended to humans. If there are natural laws governing human behavior, then perhaps we can develop superior societies.

Other philosophers led the way through the 18thC.

Montesquieu-The Spirit of the Laws: he studied gov't. He liked England's limited monarchy b/c of the separation of powers and the system of checks and balances.

Voltaire-Treatise on Toleration: he studied social problems. He criticized gov't for not allowing 'free speech'. He also criticized religious bigotry; he thought people should be more tolerant of different religious beliefs and practices. He was punished for his speech.

Denis Diderot-Encyclopedia: Diderot wanted to improve people's education with scientific knowledge and Enlightenment principles.

It also contained articles that criticized slavery.

He believed that thought God made the universe and it operated according.

Economics

One natural law, called the 'law of scarcity', creates the need for a social science called economics.

Our necessities come from nature, but the law of scarcity place.

Our necessities come from nature, but the law of scarcity places limits on nature's products. If population grows too big, then there is not enough for everyone and the quality of life declines.

Economics is the study of how societies produce and distribute the goods that support our lives. The better system, the better the quality of life for the people

All societies have an organized way of doing this, that's why they're referred to as economic system: hunter-gatherers, etc.

In the Enlightenment Age, the economic system was called 'mercantilism'. Its aim was to concentrate gold and silver in the country.

French physiocrats of the Enlightenment believed that society would have a better economy if people were allowed to work for their own self-interests, w/o gov't.

People strive harder when there is the opportunity for self-improvement, but first they must be free to do so.

In order to achieve the benefit though, they must provide something to society for it (profit motive). Which in turn is better for society? B/c a good was provided that improved the quality of life

Wealth of Nations 1776AD

When Adam Smith, Scottish physiocrats, wrote this book it replaced mercantilism with the free-market system as the economic system of Europe.

Free-market system: producers produce whatever good they think will sell w/ comsumers. If value and worth are approximately equal, then the consumer chooses to buy the good. Both producer and consumer have profited from a free exchange.

Laissez-Faire

The system will not work w/ heavy gov't involvement though, so Smith encouraged gov't to follow a policy of laissez-faire. If it does, then the economy will grow (GDP) and people will live well.

Gov't should defend the nation, provide justice, and build and maintain the infrastructure that benefits all of society. It should not interfere w/the markets though b/c that creates more scarcity.

Enlightenment and Culture

Enlightened Political & Social Ideas

The Social Contract

Jean Jacques Rousseau-The Social Contract: he was writing about the causes of poverty and injustice.

He thought people were basically good, but evils in society corrupted people which made them commit crimes.

To prevent crimes and protect private property, people created gov't but over time gov't enslaved the people.

"Gov't should only be allowed to govern, with the consent of the governed."- Rousseau

Social Contract: each citizen volunteers to give up some rights to gov't, in return gov't protects society and provide stability so that all people can thrive.

Then each citizen should have a voice in governing the society, so that the "general will" is following. The people will rule.

Hobbes & Locke

Rousseau was not the only philosopher studying a more perfect form of gov't.

Thomas Hobbes-Leviathan: Hobbes said that men were basically cruel, greedy and selfish and unless men were strictly and tightly controlled their lives would be controlled their lives would be 'nasty, harsh and short'.

He believed the social contract required that the people give up all right to an absolute monarch who would then protect and provide stability.

John Locke's Two Treatises of Government-started a very different opinion than Hobbes, b/c he assumed people were people were basically reasonable and moral. We try to do right.

Locke also said that gov't existed to protect the rights granted to people by God. Natural rights that include the right to life, liberty and to own property, To Locke, limited monarchy were the best from of gov't.

Women's Rights Begins

Ever since the agricultural revolution, society had subordinated women behind men. Their status was not equal to that of any man.

Socially and legally they were just extensions of a male first their fathers, then their husbands.

Society expected them to be homemakers and mothers, only and nothing more. Education or professions were beyond their most women.

It's worth noting that the salons of middle-class and wealthy women are credited for spreading Enlightenment ideas just as well as the printing press.

Until Mary Wollstonecraft came along and pointed out their hypocrisy in her book- A Vindication of the Rights of Women.

She also pointed out that since women were just as capable of reason as men, then women deserved full political and economic equality w/men.

Education

During the Enlightenment the number of colleges and universities increased and the curriculum was expanded w/ new degrees.

Newspapers become common in the 18th C., so even the common people could become exposed to the Enlightenment ideals, like universal education.

Enlightenment & Religion

After the Reformation, both the Catholic and Protestant faiths saw little religious fervor. No one seemed interested in finding deeper spiritual understanding.

Methodism gave us the Protestant and moral

Causes of the Fr. Revolution

Prior to July 14,1789AD

The Bourbons

French kings claimed 'divine right', and absolute power.

Under the kings of France there was a strict social class system of three 'estates'. The first was the clergy, and the second was made up of the nobility.

Both of these privileged classes lived off of the labors of the third estate while enjoying tax free lives.

The third estate was anyone from a wealthy merchant down to the lowliest peasant. About 90% of the population was the third estate.

Peasant w/o land wandered into French cities hoping to find jobs in a craft, or as day laborers. Jobs were hard to find though and the price of bread kept rising.

As a holdover from medieval time, peasants still owed the corvee, a duty to perform labor for a lord. Peasant resented working for free.

The third estate paid 100% of the taxes to support the gov't. Over the centuries advisors to the king had placed taxes on every essential item that they could. Every item in a peasant's life had a tax on it.

The small but educated French middle class had absorbed Enlightenment ideas and wanted changes that would allow more economic and political equality among the estate.

A financial crisis had been building since the time of Louis the XIV. Gov't had been deficit spending more money then came in as tax revenune, by borrowing the difference and only paying interest on it.

Louis XVI's decision to help the Americans fight for independence accelerates France's financial collapse, and by 1789 the king had no choice but to call a meeting of the Estates General.

The Third estate took the radical step of declaring itself the National Assembly. They took the "Tennis Court Oath".

A few nobles and clergy joined the National Assembly and Louis was forced to give it recognition, but he also surrounded Versailles with royal troops.

People in Paris reacted well to the news of what was happening with the Assembly.

The French Revolution

1789-1799

Moderate Phase

Famine and the "Great Fear" were sweeping the French countryside. Rumors abounded of raiders attacking villages for food, and the threat that royal troops were going to start seizing food.

The rumors reaching the delegates a Versailles pushed them to become bolder, to win the support of the people.

The Assembly voted to outlaw the privileges of the clergy and nobility by passing the Declaration of the Right of Men.

All men were free and equal before the law. Promotion in gov't should be based on merit. All groups should have to pay an income tax based on income. Freedom of press and speech were protected.

The middle class and moderate nobles, like the Marquis de Lafayette, supported the declaration. The first step towards a constitutional monarchy

Olympia De Gouges objected to a lack of equality granted to women though, so she wrote the Declaration of the Right of Women.

The king had tried to resist the turn of events, but when a mob of Parisian women marched on Versailles to demand food, the king and his family were shocked out their complacency.

Lafayette had to ride the 12 miles from Paris to Versailles to calm down the mob. Marie Antoinette narrowly avoided being killed, and the king had to accept returning to Paris as a prisoner with his family.

The people rejoiced to see the king in Paris wearing red, white, and blue ribbons.

The royal family was imprisoned in the Tuileries palace for three years.

Moderates in the Assembly also wanted to reform the church since it was so important to French society. They passed the Civil Constitution of the Clergy.

This allowed the Assembly to confiscate all church property and sell it. They needed the wealth to support their new revolutionary currency.

The delegates to the Assembly passed the first French constitution in 1791, for a limited monarchy. It kept the king but most of the states' power was in the hands of an elected legislative assembly.

The provincial gov't was dissolved along with the provincial courts.

Guilds which had controlled industry were abolished, and import and export taxes were repealed. This gave France free trade and free markets to boost the economy.

The King's resentment w/ the revolution grew; finally he made the decision to try an escape. He and his family wore disguises and escaped Paris, but were arrested before they could escape across the border to Austria.

At the same time the rulers of Austria and Prussia were hinting they might invade French to the revolution. The Legislative Assembly declared war on Austria first.

The Paris Commune

The revolution entered a radical phase as the people of Paris took control of the direction of the revolution through the Paris Commune.

The war was being lost, the revolutionary currency was losing its value, and there were food shortages.

The people of Paris, led by the sans-culottes, took to the streets to March and riot. Rioters invaded the Tuileries palace and the royal family was force to run to the Assembly to save themselves.

The sans-culottes led Paris Commune. They wanted protection for the revolution and better living conditions for the poor. The mobs of Paris were their source of power.

The Jacobins were led by Georges Danton

By August of 1792, the radicals called for an end to the monarchy and a national convention to rewrite the constitution to create more social equality.

In September the mobs feared that nobles were selling out the revolution, so across France thousands of imprisoned nobles and other "traitors" were murdered.

In September 1792 the National Convention met to draw up a new constitution, but they also became the ruling body of France.

The body quickly voted to abolish the monarchy and establish 1st French Republic.

The Jacobins won the argument, so the king and his wife were condemned to the guillotine.

Radicals in the convention then began to push for price controls on food and universal male suffrage.

The executions divided the French, and uprising against the Convention began in the south and west. Prussia, Austria, Spain and Britain were preparing to invade French and French armies pulled back.

The National Convention to create the Committee of Public Safety.

Led by Georges Danton and then Maximillian Robespierre

Reign of Terror

The rev. was threatened w/ an external invasion, so the committee called upon all patriotic young men to join the army. Hundreds of thousands answer the call, and French begins

To deal w/the internal threat, the committee created rev. courts that ruled most often in guilt.

Rev. Armies were also sent into the country side to sometime destroy whole towns, accused of treason against the Committee.

Under Robespierre the revolution became a tool to redefine French culture in radical ways. Robespierre tried to legislate new beliefs and morality for the French.

Robespierre tried to replace Catholicism w/ Reason. To 'de-Christianize' the society, the committee replaced the Julian calendar w/ a new rev. calendar. There were no Sundays or religious holidays in it.

Even Robespierre realized that the French weren't going to give their religion, after a horrible holiday celebration in which he himself represented the 'god of reason'.

The Directory 1795-1799

The deputies in the National Convention finally became afraid enough of Robespierre to have him condemned, and he and all twelve members of the Committee of Public Safety sent to the guillotine.

The convention wrote a new constitution that consisted of five 'directors' to run the gov't.

The directors turned out to be corrupt men, who did little to solve the problems of French economy.

The san-culottes continued to lead riots in the cities and towns across the country protesting for food and economic help.

As peasant revolt sprang up, the directory to army to put them down. As the crisis got worse, they put much faith in one military officer.

Napoleon de Bonaparte took the opportunity to begin breathtaking career on the world stage.

Napoleon de Bonaparte

1799-1815AD

Napoleon was born into a minor noble family on the island of Corsica. To offer him a better life they sent him to a French military school at age nine. He was teased b/c he was small and spoke French w/an Italian accent.

Napoleon had a curious mind and read constantly on Enlightenment philosophy. He also studied military science and military campaigns.

Napoleon showed his loyalty to Directory 'w/a whiff of grapeshot", and was quickly promoted through the ranks. He won an important victory against the British at Toulon. Then he was given an army to command in N. Italy where he quickly won more victories against the Austrians.

His plans called for quick movements and powerful attacks. He surprised his enemies quite often. His men loved him and fought hard for him.

While on campaign, French newspapers created a 'hero of mythic proportion'. When Napoleon returned to Paris he received the public's adoration.

Napoleon's next move was to invade Egypt, but Napoleon had miscalculated. The RN destroyed the French fleet that was supporting Napoleon's army.

Far from home and w/o naval support, Napoleon abandoned his troops and raced back to Paris, so he could give 'his account' of the disaster. His celebrity status, and some 'spin', prevented any bad P.R.

Napoleon joined a successful conspiracy to overthrow the weak Directory in 1799. A new constitution was drawn up. It created an executive system called the Consulate.

Napoleon was First Consul and actually held absolute power. In 1802 he became Consul for life.

Napoleon's Empire

The "Reign of Terror" created a desire for peace and stability in French society, and bread prices had come down. The rioting and turmoil were over. The people gave Napoleon credit for that.

The 'Hero of Italy' gave people a sense of protection for themselves and the ideals of the rev. they had fought for. They believed Napoleon had saved the rev. w/his battlefield victories.

Napoleon worked on improving canals, harbors and roads to improve trade. He subsidized new businesses. He started compulsory public education to make sure he had trained bureaucrats and army officers.

A strong centralized gov't was his method for achieving efficiency in gov't. All policies decisions came from Paris and orders to all the districts flowed out from Paris.

He made peace with the Catholic Church, but people who had bought seized church property were allowed to keep it.

He allowed the émigré's (exiled nobles) to return, in return for an oath of loyalty. He allowed peasants who acquired the noble's land during the rev. to keep it; the gov't paid off the noble.

Napoleon also promoted thousands of middle-class to the nobility for their 'service' to the state'. People of all classes benefited economically under Napoleon.

French citizen also benefited from the 'Napoleonic Code'. In 1804 in Civil Code was released as a single unifying law code for the entire empire. It kept many Enlightenment ideals of the rev., but it also rolled back the rights of women.

Napoleon's Conquests 1804-1814

Napoleons only got enjoy a shot interval of peace during his reign. He was at war w/Britain in 1803 and Britain was joined by Sweden, Russia, Prussia and Austria.

French was still fielding huge armies however, that Napoleon used brilliantly. B/w 1805 and 1807 Napoleon won four major battles. His greatest victory was at Austerlitz where he defeated both a Russian and Austrian army.

From his victories Napoleon was able to carve up Europe. Belgium and Holland parts of Italy he annexed into the French Empire.

Many of the state he controlled were given to new rulers (family members and supporters), titles were bestowed by him.

Napoleon's Downfall

Only England was left to resist him b/c of the protection provided by the RN. England continued fighting Napoleon on the seas, until it was threatened by combined Spanish-French fleet to be used for an invasion.

In 1805 at the Battle of Trafalgar, Lord Horatio Nelson and the British won a major victory. Nelson's fleet destroyed Napoleon's fleet and stopped his plans to invade the island country.

The British were also helping the Spanish fight Napoleon's brother the 'king of Spain'. The army's commander was 'Iron Duke', the Duke of Wellington.

To starve England of trade, Napoleon tried to implement the Continental Plan. All ports in the empire, and in allied countries, were to close to Britain's new empire though was providing new markets for its goods.

Another factor in Napoleon's downfall was the nationalism evoked in the conquered peoples. They wanted their own nations, and they had learned from the French that common desire for nationhood was a powerful weapon.

The nations that Napoleon conquered were united in their nationalist hatred of the French and Napoleon.

Peace at Vienna

The Breakup of Napoleonic Europe

Russia

Czar Alexander of Russia hated Napoleon and his Continental Plan and rejected them both. Napoleon felt he had to invade Russia and did in 1812.

The Grand Army marched into Russia w/600k men, less than 50k came home. The Czar had refused battle w/Napoleon and retreated deep into the country, scorching the earth behind him. The Grand Army was forced to rely on just what it brought w/it.

At the Battle of Borodino the Russian army finally turned and fought to protect Moscow, but lost. Napoleon took Moscow and waited for Alexander to show up and surrender, he didn't.

Finally as the city was being burned down around him and the first winter snow was on the ground, Napoleon and his army started on the 1000 mile march back to Poland.

All along the way the Russians attacked, and sometimes picked off whole units. The French were low on everything, especially morale. They were easy targets for the Russians.

His resentful 'allies' saw Napoleon's vulnerability and they revived their alliance and declared war on French.

Napoleon no longer had legions of patriotic soldiers waiting to follow him. He had lost some of his best generals too. He was no longer the man used to be either; he was tired and forgetful.

His own gov't offered him up to the allies when the allies marched on Paris and in 1813 Napoleon was forced off the throne and into exile on the island of Elba in the Med. Sea

He reappeared in France briefly in 1815, but met defeat at the Battle of Waterloo by the Duke of Wellington and a England & Prussian army.

Congress of Vienna

This was meeting of all the important countries and rulers of Europe. For ten months they debated and the shape of Europe.

The most important delegates were from Austria, Russia, Prussia, and Britain. The Austrian Prince Metternich was the most influential delegate. The French even sent a minister named Talleyrand to represent them.

The goals for the meeting were: 1) to restore peace and stability to Europe by restoring monarchs to their rightful thrones. 2) Redraw territorial boundaries to create a new balance of power among the major states.

This was meeting of conservative leaders who wanted to roll back progress on enlightened ideals. They wanted to crush revolutions whenever they threatened a monarchy.

Conservatism believes in maintaining social stability by slowing change. Adopt new ideas slowly and gradually over time so that people can get used to the change.

After Vienna

Principle of Interventionism: the great nations may use military force to put down revolutions in other countries.

Concert of Europe: periodic meetings of the nations of Europe to prevent conflicts.

Liberalism: grows out of Enlightenment; people should be as free as possible from gov't control and interference. This caused another French Rev. in 1848.

Nationalism: people that were denied nationhood continued to demand it. This causes more revolutions in the Austrian Empire, Germany, Italy, and Central Europe in the 1840's.

Industrial Revolution

1750-1950AD

Shifting from an agricultural economy to an industrial one

Factors for Industrialization

The Industrial Rev. began in Britain for several reasons: demand for manufactured goods, a large labor pool, important natural resources and plenty capital ($).

A decrease in food prices meant even poor people had money 'left over' to afford to buy the mass produced goods that they wanted.

There was an increase of demand, so any entrepreneur who could produce a supply of the supply of the good, made more profit selling it.

During the Enclosure Movement of the 17th C., English farm workers were let go as landowners shifted from farming to sheep ranching.

England also populations increase due to an increase in the food supply. Not just the amounts, but in variety as well. New products like corn, tomatoes, potatoes, and beans were being grown.

The population gathered in the cities, and become labor for the new factories and mills.

England also had 'other' natural resources for production: rivers and canals for power and transport, and plentiful coal and iron deposits.

Industrialization means the ability to mass produce goods. Mass production depends on some key ingredients: labor, technology/machinery, large amounts of raw materials, and capital.

Only capital can bring these ingredients together. In order to begin production you must pay for a location for your factory. Then you must staff it w/ workers and managers. Then you must purchase the machinery, and then buy the raw materials.

England's world trade had given her merchants and banks a lot capital to invest in land, labor and machinery.

Textiles: Cloth

Prior to industrialization England's economy and trade had been built on wool trade. When cotton was discovered, it replaced wool.

Raw cotton was dropped off to cottages of peasant women who spun it into threat and wove it into cloth. The cottage system was a slow inefficient system of production.

Machinery had to be invented to make the production process more efficient: the "Flying shuttling" improved weaving, but threats prod.

Throughout history there has been an evolution of energy starting w/fire for heating food. People relied on their own muscles at first for mechanical energy, but then we started using animals, current and wind power too.

To power the machinery of a textile mill, they were placed next to rivers.

Stream power provided the solution when James Watt perfected the engine to power machinery.

Steam Power

The idea of steam power had been around since classical times. Thomas Newcomer invented a steam powered water pump to remove water from deep mine shafts.

James Watt just had to refine that for is his steam engine. This opened up new applications of steam power. It wasn't long before the steam

The steam locomotive (1804) and steam boat (1807) revolutionized travel and shipping across Europe and America.

The development of steam power increased demand for iron. The crude pig iron was made using in a blast furnace, a process developed by Abraham Darby, but it was brittle w/ impurities.

In the 1780's iron production was improved by Henry Cort made more pure iron in a process called 'puddling' which burned off the impurities producing more and better iron.

Darby III used it built the first cast-iron bridge in 1779.

New steam powered inventions were being added to a number of industries, as fast as they could be invented; as soon as demand forced an increase in efficiency.

By 1800 the rev. had swept through Western Europe and the New England states in America.

A rising population and new markets for all kinds of new goods presented great opportunities. Telegraph communications would tie together the distant ports for a fleet of steamships. The Royal Navy, the strongest in the world protected the shipping routes.

England was building the largest world trade network in history.

Industrial Society

The working class of the industrial age saw their quality of life, and life expectancy, decrease when they moved into the crowded tenements of the cities.

The living conditions were bad, but the working conditions were worse. Long days with little pay; "life according to the clock"

The factory life was harshly disciplined and dangerous, especially for the children. Factory managers turned farm peasants into just more parts of the machinery.

The industrial age also helped a new middle-class rise in England, the bourgeoisie. The professionals in society, but also the new business owners, the new entrepreneurs and investors

It was the rise of the middle class however that became the backbone of a Britain's industrialized society.

Socialism

Reform mined people objected to industrial capitalism b/c of the competition it created. Competition pre

Europe 1850 to 1900

Unification, Darwinism, Communism, Romanticism

New Nations

The Concert of Europe had crushed nationalist revolutions in 1848, but nationalism didn't die out, it grew.

In 1855 a war broke out and France and Britain declared against Russia. That broke the Concert of Europe.

That meant that the door was open for Italy and Germany to fully unify their own countries w/new gov'ts

In North Italy the kingdom of Piedmont, after defeating Austria, becomes the strongest Italian kingdom. Other kingdoms in Italy then joined w/it.

In South Italy, Giuseppe Garibaldi and his 'red shirts' helped a Sicilian revolt take control of the island.

Then Garibaldi crossed into South Italy and led a march through the Kingdom of Naples until he defeated the last of the Bourbon king's forces.

Garibaldi gave control of his conquests to the king of Piedmont, who become Victor Emanuel II, King of Italy. Italy adopted a constitutional monarchy.

Later in the 19th C. Italy completed its unification by getting Venice from the Austrians, and Rome from the Pope.

Germany had failed to unify itself voluntarily, so it was going to take the leadership of the most powerful German state, Prussia, to lead the way.

The Hohenzollern Princes of Prussia were Protestant, so the Catholic German princes didn't trust him, but they signed mutual defense alliances w/him anyway.

Prussia was autocratic state that relied on military strength (militarism). When Otto Von Bismarck was appointed the prince's chancellor

He worked to make the Prussian army even stronger.

Bismarck knew the French would never allow a unified German state, so he started a war w/them. A war which allowed him to call upon all of Germany's princes to under the Prussian flag

It also gave him a chance to defeat the French.

The Frenco-Pussian War was a spectacular victory for the Germans. France had to give up two important provinces, Alsace and Lorraine.

The provinces were added to the new 2nd German empire under the Prussian Kaiser, Wihelm I.

Scientific Thought

Industrialization caused an increase in scientific research to create new products and technology. Great discoveries were made, but the changes they brought were not always easy to accept.

Louis Pasteur lays the basis for modern medical science when he proposed microscopic organisms may be the cause of illness and disease (gem theory).

Michael Faraday builds the first primitive electrical generator, and Mendeleyev starts building the Table of Periodic Elements.

In 1859 Charles Darwin, a naturalist, published an account of his trip to the Galapagos Island of the Pacific. These islands had plants and animals that only lived there.

On the Origins of the Species by Means of Natural Selection: strong survival traits breed true in offspring. Weak survival traits cause death before the breeding stage and the species dies out. AKA the theory of evolution: how all the different plants and animals were created through competition?

Natural selection suggests that God is not responsible for creation as it is; instead it's just natural changing over time by choosing successful species by virtue of survival traits.

In the field of history and economics was a work written by Karl Marx called The Communist Manifesto. Marx and his partner Friedrich Engels were appalled by the conditions in the tenements and factories for the working class.

Marx stated that ALL of history was a story of how the upper classes (bourgeoisie) manipulated and controlled the working classes (proletariat) for their own benefit.

They predicted that the workers would win the conflict w/ a worldwide revolution since workers outnumbered capitalists.

After the revolution was won 'scientific socialism' would create a new classless state, run by and for the benefit of the workers.

Under communism, all mean of production and distribution of goods were controlled by the gov't.

There are no private co., no profit motive, no laws of supply and demand, and no need to be efficient.

Everyone gets the goods that the gov't says they can have, and earns it by doing what the state demands that they produce. There is no economic freedom.

Of course, if there's no economic freedom, there can be no political and not much social freedom either.

Romanticism

In the middle ages, the Catholic Church preached that the only 'Truth' people needed to concern themselves w/ was the salvation of their souls.

In the Age of Reason that scientific method was preached as the way to find nature's 'truth' by the philosophers and scientists.

Romantics loved nature, and believed in the importance of the soul and individuality. They wanted the poetic, not the reality.

Romanticism was an intellectual movement that believed emotions, experiences, and imagination were ways to learn 'truth'.

Realism

Realism was an artistic and literary movement that ran counter to romanticism. It wasn't about heroic people in natural settings. It was about ordinary people living life, and it showed all the harshness of their lives.

Social issues also provided backdrops to their stories, so that the author could point out injustice in society.

Charles Dickens is still well known for his novels of the Britain's poor in the Industrial Age, such as Oliver Twist.

European Imperialism

European Empires-19th C

The first conquering emperor was Sargon of Akkad, in ancient Mesopotamia. He wasn't the last. Many have followed the idea of taking over vast territories, and controlling the on it.

Europe began its 1st phase of imperialism as soon as they heard about all the land across the Atlantic. The wealth of Am's natural resources was immense.

Some men came to get rich w/ a gold or silver strike, but many more came to the new world for land.

To enforce their will and protect the property and trade that grew from their colonies, gov'ts sent armies and navies.

By 1880AD Imperialism entered its 2nd phase. There was fierce competition for colonies b/c they were seen as sources of raw materials, and new markets to sell manufactured goods.

Each country was seeking to gain a monopoly on trade in India. Asia, Africa, and both the East and West Indies

Colonies were also status symbol for Europeans. They believed in Social Darwinism: the idea that societies/states must compete and prove which the more is fit for survival and dominance.

Part of the motivation for empire is racism. The people whose freedom they are taking away were not white, nor Christian.

In the fact Europeans felt that they were helping the natives by providing European ideas, technology and infrastructures. They were also Christianizing the natives.

Colonies also played a role in European rivalries. Sometimes rivalries spilled over into open warfare b/w their colonies, and sometimes the competition for colonies caused the fighting.

San Martin had also begun his career in 1810 by liberating Argentina from Spanish rule. He then crossed

Brazil was easily able to declare its own independence from Portugal in 1822, and their prince became their emperor.

Though many of these new countries started as republics they had no experience w/ democracy. They became oligarchies led by a strong man, known as the caudillo, who controlled the military.

One thing hoped for by the creoles and peninsulares that led the rev's for independence was that they would get greater control over their own trade. Instead of Spain and Portugal controlling their trade through it became controlled by the U.S. and Britain.

Imperialist Africa

How Europe warped Africa development

The Slave trade

It was also known as the triangular trade, as it crossed the Atlantic. It was the result of a demand for labor on the plantation and in the mines of the Americas.

Cargoes of cotton, rum, sugar, tobacco, indigo and natural resources would be shipped to Europe from the Americas. Then the cargoes were converted to manufactured goods. Then the ships sailed to Africa.

Muskets, buckets, pans and mirrors were traded for cargoes of slaves. The slaves were taken across the Atlantic for sale in markets.

Estimates are that in a 200 year period 8 million Africans were shipped to C. and S. America. Approximately 6 million went to North America.

This trade had devastating effects on Africa. Areas along the west coast were depopulated, families were torn apart and cultures were destroyed.

Warfare increased as chiefs used their firearms to enlarge their territories and take more slaves for trade.

Eventually warfare didn't supply enough slaves, so European slaves gangs led their own raids into Africa kidnapping anyone they wanted.

West and North Africa

Africa had always been a land of mystery and danger to Europeans, but in the half of 19th C. Explorers began opening the continent to white men. The race for colonies expanded into Africa.

The British began annexing parts of the Gulf of Guinea and the area around the Niger River.

France took control of most of West Africa from the Med. Sea to the Gulf of Guinea. Algeria, Tunisia and Morocco were protectorates of the French gov't.

Germany took control took parts of S.W Africa w/the Portuguese in the Angola.

Italy tried to conquer Ethiopia and failed, so it attacked Ottoman Tripoli. It won and renamed the country Libya in 1911.

Egypt however, was able to declare its independence from the Ottoman Empire, until after the completion of the Suez Canal got Britain's attention.

Central and East Africa

C. Africa was opened by the reports of the explorations of Dr. David Livingstone. A British doctor and missionary he explored the region for 30 years.

Am. Journalist Henry Stanley was later sent to find the missing doctor. He found him, and then continued exploring the Congo River.

It was Belgium's king Leopold who opened C. Africa to colonization. Henry Stanley had talked the king into colonizing the Congo River basin, so the king hired Stanley to set up Belgian settlements.

The French the rushed in to claim territory on the northern central plain above the Congo River

The fate of East Africa was determined by the Berlin Conference of 1885. Belgium, France, Portugal and Germany all had claims in the region.

Britain, Portugal and Germany got clear control of the areas they wanted along the coast and France was given the Island of Madagascar. After 1885, the only independent countries on the African continent were Liberia and Ethiopia. The map of Africa was redrawn by Europeans again by 1914. The map made no allowance for cultures, languages or the history of the Africa peoples.

South Africa

Colonization in South Africa began under the Dutch in the 1600's. During the Napoleonic wars however the British had seized the region around Cape Town.

The British encouraged white settlement and the white population grew. Of all of Africa, South Africa has the best climate and soil for farming.

Disgusted Afrikaners/Boers took the 'Great Trek' to get out from under British rule and moved north to establish Boer two states.

The Boers were very racist so they just displaced Africans to reservations, and used them for labor.

Both and British had to deal w/the powerful Zulu nation. Shake Zulu had built an empire built on disciplined Zulu armies in the early 1800's. Even after his death they were still a strong military force in South Africa.

Cecil Rhodes was the wealthy governor of the Cape Colony. His ambition was to link Britain's empire in Africa from Cairo to Cape Town with British colonies and railroad running through them.

When the British gov't found out Rhodes plan to overthrow the Boer gov'ts, it removed Rhodes from power. Too late though, the Boers had found out about Rhodes' plans and they began to arm and organize for war.

The British gov't had no choice but to send more troops to S. Africa. The British army fought a frustrating war against the Boer guerilla forces from 1899 to 1902.

Using guerilla style (hit & run) tactics, the Boer fought well. The larger and better supplied British troops however got the upper hand.

Imperialism China

Imperialism in China

The Qing dynasty was at the height of its power in 1800, by 1900 it was very close to collapse. Though there were internal pressures, it was foreign colonialism that sealed the fate of China's last emperor.

Internal pressure resulted from a pop. Boom that caused mass starvation, a gov't that became more inept and corrupt throughout the century and a gov't that refused to allow any individual right or democratic institutions.

The fact that the Manchu emperor lost to Britain in the Opium War, highlighted how weak the dynasty had grown. The emperor had proven he could not stop foreign ships, guns and ideas from taking control of China.

Britain was selling illegal opium to the Chinese in order to create a better balance of trade w/China. The emperor responded by blockading the trade port of Canton, demanding the opium be turned over. Britain went to war (1839-1842).

British warships proved decisive, and the treaty the Qing was forced to sign expanded the territory, rights and privileges of the Europeans. Other unequal treaties followed.

The British received the island of Hong Kong. Taxes on British imports were reduced and extraterritoriality was established. "foreign devils" against each other, the Qing empress gave the same trade terms to other nations. Including the U.S

After this it became harder for the Qing empress to resist foreign influence and dominance in trade, society and politics.

Qing rulers tried to resist the ideas equality and freedom. In 1850 that led to the 14 year long Tai Ping Rebellion. A civil war that killed 20 million Chinese before it was put down w/European help.

To get enough troops to fight the rebellion, the empress made deals w/ local warlords to help fight; in return they got the right to collect the taxes from a region.

By 1870, it was apparent only modernization was save China from being carved by the industrialized nations. The empress refused to accept western ideas however.

Imperial powers sensed a chance to grab more than the bits of coastland they controlled. By making deals w/the warlord directly, Britain, Russia, France, Germany and Japan gained exclusive right for RR's, mining, etc.

In 1898 Guang Xu inherited the throne and began a massive reform program to adopt western technology and ideas. He wanted to modernize. The military and the bureaucracy

By 1899 the fear was that the Chinese gov't collapse would cause a feeding frenzy of imperialist nations grabbing power and territory.

The spheres of influence could be used to prevent free trade of all nations in Chinese markets. That might lead to a destruction war.

The 1899 bands of roving gangs called "boxers" were in the countryside killing foreigners. They especially hated foreign missionaries and Chinese Christian converts.

World War I

Part One

1914-1915

Causes

Nationalism: people's pride in their nation, or just the desire to have a nation, was straining relations among the states of Europe.

Alliances: Bismarck formed the Triple Alliance with Austria and Italy in 1882 to isolate France. France, G.B. and Russia formed the "Triple Entente" in 1907 as war became more likely.

Militarism: the military is tool by which nations showed their strength and achieved their goals. It meant constant preparations for the next war.

Imperialism: put the industrialized nations into an economic competition for colonies. Competition that did spill over into conflict

Arms Race: to protect the seas for their ships and trade, both Britain and Germany wanted dominance on the seas and both were willing to spend to achieve it. Each side spent huge amounts on the new warship, the dreadnought.

The Balkans

The mountainous region near the crossroads of the world is some of the most contested land in history, and it was still a land of conflict in 1914.

The Slavs of Serbia had recently won independence from the Ottomans and were secretly supporting Bosnian Serbs to gain their independence from Austria.

Serbia was hoping to create w/Russia support b/c they were all Slavic descendants, a Slavic state in South East Europe. Serbia planned on being the dominant part of the gov't.

Austria was determined to prevent that from happening.

The Black Hand was five young Bosnian Serbs, who wanted their country free of Austria. They decided to become terrorists to achieve their goal: to start a war that would free Bosnia.

Gavrilo Princip and his group decided to strike while the Archduke Francis Ferdinand was visiting Sarajevo, Bosnia. The first few attempts at attacking the motorcade failed, but later in the day Princip got a 2nd chance and succeeded.

Austria blamed Serbia but feared Russia's reaction, so before acting they telegraphed Kaiser Wilhelm II of Germany who gave them his complete backing.

The Dominoes Fall

The Russians were the first to mobilize their forces the largest in Europe w/over million soldiers. The czar wanted a partial mobilization but his military advisors told him it would wreck their plans, so he ordered a full mobilization.

Germany saw that as an act of war and warned the Czar to 'stand down' w/in 12 hours. Russia refused, so Germany declared war on Russia, followed by Austria.

Germany could not just mobilize against the Russians so they also declared war on France.

France honored their alliance w/Russia and began to mobilize as it declared war on Germany and Austria.

When Germany threatened Belgian neutrality Britain declared war on Germany and Austria.

Italy was supposed to back up Austria and Germany in the Triple Alliance, but chose to declare its own neutrality instead.

The Schlieffen Plan

Germany faced the French and British on western front, and Germans and Austrians faced the Russians and Serbians on an eastern front.

The Germans had plan for fighting a two-front war, written by Gen. Alfred von Schlieffen, since the 1890's.

The plan assumed that the large Russian army would be slow to mobilize. That would give the Germans time to launch a massive invasion through Belgium to get behind the French armies along the Franco-German border, and then race to Paris.

W/Paris in their hands the French had to surrender and the British would have no choice either. Then the German armies would turn east to defeat the Russians on their own soil.

Their plan went wrong: the Russians had attacked through Poland and were on Germany's eastern border before the Germans were ready to fight them.

The Germans had shift divisions of troops to the east as quickly as they could; this weakened the forces fighting in Belgium and France.

Trench Warfare

WWI was the first industrialize war. Science and engineering had created powerful new weapons. Mass production made

World War I

Part II

1916-1918

New Weapons

To break the trench stalemate each side introduced new weapons.

Airplanes: used at first for reconnaissance, later they were armed w/ machine guns for dogs fighting. Larger planes and zeppelins were used for aerial bombing.

Submarines: used by the Germans to sink cargo ships in the waters around Britain in order to starve

They were the original stealth weapon.

Chemical gases: the Germans were the first to use gas to 'soften' enemy trench lines before an attack across no man's land. The Allies quickly equipped troop's w/gas masks.

Flame thrower: developed as a shock weapon by the Germans for attacks on enemy's trenches.

The tank: secretly developed by the Britain in 1915, it used caterpillar treads to cross the mud and barbed wire of no man's land. It was armored so the crew was safe from machine guns. The crew inside fired machine guns and cannon to take out the enemy trenches

None of these inventions affections the stalemate fronts in Europe.

The Allies tried to swing the momentum of the war in their favor by moving the war outside of Europe. They tried land attacks at Gallipoli in the Dardanelles, and in Arabia and Palestine, but those didn't change the situation in Europe either.

The Tide Turns

Despite the fact that 126 Am.'s went down when a German sub sank the SS Lusitania off the coast of Ireland in 1915, Pres. Woodrow Wilson one re-election in 1916 on the motto that he had "kept U.S. out of the war."

The Germans were practicing unrestricted submarine warfare; they could fire on any ship w/out warning. This violated traditional rules of war at sea.

After the Lusitania incident, the Germans stopped the practice to keep America out of the war. In 1916, a desperate Kaiser gave the ok resume it.

Am. Banks offered the French and British w/new loans to keep those countries in the fight. Am. Defense industries became new sources of supply.

It took time for an unprepared Am. Army to get troops ready to send to Europe, but when they began to arrive in France it turned out that they were our most important contribution to the war effort.

The France and British had been worn down by three long years in a war of attrition. Our 'doughboys' were big strong guys, ready and eager to fight.

The Germans launched one last desperate attack on the western front in March of 1918. They wanted to end the war before large number of Am.'s soldiers decided the issue.

The Germans commanders had received 100k's of reinforcements from the eastern front b/c Russia had dropped out of the war to fight a communist rev.

The Allies w/help from 140k inexperienced Am's fought a desperate fight north of Paris and stopped the German drive.

In Sept. 1918, the Am.'s under Gen. 'Blackjack' Pershing launched their own massive attack. Using large numbers of tanks and aircraft in new tactics, the attack broke the back of the German army.

The End

The German people and the German army had enough. There were riots and revolts in German cities. The Kaiser abdicated and went into exile.

The situation in Austria-Hungary was just as bad and the last Hapsburg monarch fell from is throne as his empire dissolved. The Versailles Treaty broke the empire into separated states: Austria, Hungary, Czechoslvakia and Yugoslavia.

The Ottoman Empire had joined the Central Powers in 1915, but it was a bad decision. Their losses in the war collapsed the empire.

Treaty of Versailles

The chief delegates of was David Lloyd George of G.B., Pres. Clemenceau of France and Pres. Wilson.

Germany was not allowed to attend and Russia could not attend due to its civil war. Italy's prime minister was there but he had no influence on the discussions.

When the discussions were over in 1919, the German republic sent representative to Versailles to sign the treaty. They had to sign, or face an indefinite occupation of their country by foreign soldiers.

The Big three each came w/ a goal for the treaty:

-England wanted reparations to rebuilt its economy and pay the costs of the war. Germany was force to pay $30 billion in reparations.

-Wilson brought his '14 Point Plan', a plan to protect the peace. The only thing he got was the League of Nation.

-The US Senate refused to ratify the treaty thinking it might draw Am. into more conflicts. The weakened the treaty and League of Nations.

New Nations

The Versailles Treaty redraws the map of Europe. The goal was to give self-determination to ethnic groups of Eastern Europe to future peace.

At the same time weakened Austria, Hungary, Bulgaria and Germany by taking away some their territory to create these new nations:

Legacy of the War

This war cost 8.5 million killed, 17 million wounded. People learned how deadly industrialized war was.

This war taught the world about 'total war': mobilizing the society, economy and gov't to survive a life and death struggle.

Gov'ts took control of the free market, and many aspects of their economies. They rationed goods, placed price and wage controls, and prevented strikes.

Gov'ts used censorship and propaganda on their citizens. Sedition laws limited free speech.

The most important legacy of this war is how the treaty contributed to an even more terrible conflict in the future.

The Russian Revolution

1917-1921 AD

The Romanovs

The Romanovs may have had a few highlights on the throne, but overall they allowed their arrogance to cause a terrible fall for the family.

Romanovs had allowed serfdom to continue well into the 19th C. Even after it was outlawed though nothing got better for the masses of Russian peasants

After the loss to Japan in 1905, there was a short lived revolt put it was brutally put down by the Czar's Cossacks.

Russia's limited industry and poor economy should have prevented Russia's entry into WW I.

The one thing Czar Nicholas II did have going for him was that he could draft as many peasants as he wanted, but he didn't have a single military leader who known how to wield this huge amount of effectively.

Not even him, though that didn't keep from going to front and taking command personally.

While he was at the front, back in Moscow his wife was being influenced by a raunchy character named Rasputin. She was making important decisions w/ Rasputin's advice.

Mutiny and Revolt

By the 1917 the Russian army and the Russian people had enough.

More than 2 million soldiers were dead and 6 million wounded. Whole units of Russian soldiers mutinied and left the trenches. Their officers either joined them or were shot.

In St. Petersburg and other Russian cities bread riots broke out. Led by overworked women who couldn't afford bread to feed their sick children

The women were joined by others in calling for a general strike which shut down the country.

The czars ordered the army into disperse the crowds, w/bullets if necessary, but army units mutinied and refused to fire on the crowds.

Members of the disbanded Duma met and asked the czar to abdicate, and he did. The 300 year Romanov dynasty came to end.

Alexander Kerensky and other middle-class members of the Duma set up a gov't. They promised elections an insisting on continuing the war.

Local soviets started taking control of town and cities. They had more radical ideas for Russia's future.

Bolsheviks

V.I. Lenin saw his brother murdered by the czar's secret police when he was boy. He grew up to be a revolutionary just like his brother. Before the secret police caught up with him though, he escaped to Germany.

Lenin had become the leader of a radical socialist group that wanted the violent overthrow of the czar and the entire capitalist system in Russia. He wanted a Marxist state created by force.

In 1917 the German gov't offered to sneak him back into Russia to begin his rev. and he agreed.

Lenin came back w/ a plan to take control of the soviets and use them to overthrow the provisional gov't.

To appeal to the peasant councils he promised an end to the war, land redistribution, switching ownership of industry to the workers, and giving the soviets the run Russia.

By October of 1917 Lenin was ready to make his move. The St. Petersburg soviet numbered 240k and was led by Leon Trotsky.

In November Trotsky ordered his followers to take the building that housed the gov't. The attempt at democracy in Russia was over.

The Congress of Soviets was called and Lenin formally gave over power to them. They started passing laws which gave executive authority to a council (politburo) run by Lenin.

The Bolsheviks then renamed themselves the communist party.

Lenin kept his promise to the Russian people, though it was costly in terms of territory. The Treaty of Brest-Litovsk ended Russian participation in WW I.

That freed up the soviet soldiers Lenin was going to need to fight in his civil war.

Civil War

Various groups w/in Russia were going to resist the communist's b/c they were royalists, wanted gradual change, more democratic change, or just b/c they thought Lenin was the new autocrat. They were collectively referred to as the "White Russians"

The Allies hoped by supporting the White Russians that maybe Russia would re-enter the war. The Allies created supply bases from which they could help White Russian forces fight the communist, or Red Russians.

In 1918, in order to discourage the White Russians the czar, his wife, his three teen-age daughters and young son were shot and killed by communists.

In 1919 White forces, loyal to czar or democracy, attacked out of Siberia in the east, the Ukraine in south and from the Baltic States in the west.

In 1920 the Red army's drove off all the attacks though and went on the offensive conquering the Ukraine, Georgia, Armenia and Azerbaijan.

Commissar of War Trotsky brought back the draft and built discipline into the ranks by summarily executing anyone who disobeyed orders or deserted.

He had built a motivated and disciplined force that just wanted to win at all cost to protect their rev. The White Russians couldn't match that fighting spirit.

Communism

Fighting a life and death struggle to save the rev. gave the politburo justification for the gov't takeover of the economy. Administration of the country was centralized in Moscow, and all decisions came from there.

Industry and harvests were commandeered to feed and supply the Red army.

The Cheka or secret police began the "Red Terror". Using gossip, rumors, anonymous tips and torture the Cheka hunted down the traitors w/in the country.

By 1921 the Communists had consolidated their hold on power began to transform it from the bottom up into the first Marxist state.

Italy and Mussolini

Birth of Fascism

Many post war European states gave up on democracy and turned to some form of dictatorship. Dictators use force to maintain control, but may allow some right and protections.

Some states went even further by adopting totalitarianism. A gov't that attempts to totally control all aspect of the state: media, police, industry and economy, laws and courts, military, and foreign policy etc.

Fascism is a type of totalitarianism. It calls for all power to place in the hands of one person and one political party. The leader is will, the people are the means to achieve the leader's will.

Italy

Italy suffered from inflation, and worker strikes after WWI. Strikes had been part of the Bolshevik rev., so the Italian middle-class began to fear a communist takeover of Italy.

In the midst of this instability appeared a WW I veteran and founder of Italy's fascist party, Benito Mussolini. He had returned from the war convinced that Italy needed a strong leader to protect against a communist revolution.

Mussolini had started life as socialist, so many of his ideas about gov't economic support appealed to workers and peasants. His path to power started from that support.

The political and economic unrest were ideal for Mussolini, a powerful and charismatic speaker he knew how to appeal to people's passions and desires. He was a master manipulator and propagandist.

He promised them what they want to hear. Order and security, Full employment, social security, and a strong economy Political and military strength to "revive the glory of Rome"

Fascism views violence as a legitimate political tool. The "Black Shirts" were the fascist paramilitary group that worked for Mussolini. They were his 'muscle' to protect fascist party meetings.

Nationalist Italians had been upset by the Treaty of Versailles which had denied Italy the Austrian lands promised by the Allies. Mussolini's promise of conquest won him the support of those nationalists.

By 1922, the fascist were the most powerful party in Italy. Mussolini threatened the king w/a march on Rome, but he didn't have to march. Under the threat, the gov't collapsed and the king had to ask Mussolini and the fascists to form a gov't.

The Fascist State

Once in power Mussolini had laws passed that suppressed freedom of the press, and gave the leader the right to make laws by decree. Police were given unlimited power to arrest and jail. Even for 'political crimes'.

The media was under state control to spread propaganda to convince people to support fascist policies. The fascists also set up a secret police force to hunt down resistance to gov't policies.

The gov't changed school curriculum to teach fascist principles, and sponsored youth groups to give boys military training.

Women were taught that their natural role in life was as wives and homemakers.

Despite his best attempts, Mussolini never achieved total control over Italian society. He never even achieved as much control as Hitler, Stalin or the Japanese.

Since he had 'led the way' though, he was admired by Hitler and the two became friends.

Mussolini still had more than enough power to cause war and misery though, when he began his conquests.

Adolf Hitler

Nazism & Germany

1933-1945AD

Adolf Hitler was born in Austria, but his heart was German. He was drafted by the Austrian army for WW I, but Hitler snuck across the border to Bavaria and volunteered for the German army instead.

After the war, Hitler returned to Munich, Bavaria and hung out in the beer halls. Not to drink, but to listen to nationalist speakers. This was how Hitler found his calling in life; he was going to join politics.

He already had his strong opinions about Jews and history, and his Germany. Considering his ambition, politics seemed the best way to achieve them.

Hitler began speaking himself, and attracted the like-minded and bitter veterans. His passion and sincerity was obvious, which was turn off to many, but other become mesmerized by him.

Hitler took over one of these ultranationalist groups and renamed it the National Socialist German Workers Party (NSDAP), or Nazi's for short.

Hitler adopted the Eagle and the "Heil" salute. He borrowed them from the Roman Empire. Hitler also borrowed the 'swastika' from Aryan History as the symbol of Nazism.

Hitler is overconfident in 1923 when he launches the "Beer Hause Putch". He hopes w/a few followers to take over the city of Munich and the province of Bavaria. Then all of Germany would rise up and join him.

Instead he and his Nazis were met w/ a hail of Bullets from police and the army. Men died on both sides, but the revolt failed. Hitler was arrested and put on trial for treason.

He was sentenced to five years, but only served 8 months. It was time enough for him to dictate his manifesto (statement of beliefs) on anti-Semitism, anti-communism, and German racial superiority.

Hitler had realized while in prison that the Nazis needed to win elections, not revolts. The Nazis formed a national organization that put Nazis on ballots for both local and national election.

Of course the Hitler's SA, the Brown Shirts, did their best to disupt the meetings of other political parties by starting fights. Brown Shirts also protected Nazi meetings and marched in parades every Saturday and Sunday.

From 1925 to 1932 the Nazis focused on winning as many elections as possible. Hitler appealed nationalism and militarism; he promised full employment and security from communism.

By the time of the 1932 elections there were 80k Nazis in Germany. That was enough to win the election and make the Nazis the largest party in the Reichstag.

The largest party got to name the Chancellor. The Nazis named Adolf Hitler.

The president of Germany, Hindenburg, didn't like Hitler and the Nazi so stalled and refused to confirm Hitler as chancellor. Hindenburg was pressured by a group of bankers, industrialist and military officers into accepting Hitler in 1933.

Hitler had something to offer each of those groups for their support. They through they would control him, but instead Hitler controlled them all.

In the Reichstag he increased his power by having it pass the Enabling Acts. Laws which legally allowed his to suspend the constitution and rule by decree

Hitler began his programs to create an empire controlled by those of pure Aryan descendants that would last a thousand years. A Third Reich

He started by getting rid political enemies. All other political parties were outlawed. Their members were rounded up and sent to work camps throughout Germany. They were not seen again.

In 1934, after the death of Hindenburg, Hitler had the powers of the president given to the chancellor. He was the sole ruler of Germany.

Hitler's new title was 'fuhrer', or leader, and Germans gave him a personal oath to follow him to the death.

Nazi State

Before building the empire, the Nazis had to transform Germany. Nazi curriculum was placed in schools, along w/the Nazi flag and photos of the fuhrer.

All of the media was put under Josef Goebbels, the Nazi propaganda minister. Nazi propaganda flowed from the newspapers, radio and movies. The Nazis sponsored concert, opera, theatre and sporting events to keep the people entertained.

and swing music were banned. Instead the Nazi created the 'Hitler Youth', to give boys an ed. In Nazi beliefs, and some military training

The gov't offered cash incentives to German women for each baby they had. If they must work, then they should be teachers, nurses, or social workers.

The Brown Shirts and been replaced. Hitler's personal bodyguard had been expanded into the SS (storm troopers), his most fanatical followers. They were his bodyguard, national police force, and his most elite soldiers.

Part of the SS, was his secret police force called the Gestapo. They hunted down any resistance to Nazi polices.

They inspired terror among the people so that they would be too afraid to resist. Many decent Germans understood what was happening, but kept their mouths shout out of fear of the Gestapo.

Hitler spent massively on public works, like the autobahn, to put people back to work. As soon as he started his rearmament programs though, unemployment disappeared.

Hitler also believed in spectacle as a good propaganda tool, so at the rallies at Nuremburg the people were shown thousands of young German men and women performing exercises or traditional dances speech by the fuhrer.

Anti-Semitism

In 1935 the Reichstag passed the Nuremburg Laws to begin the oppression of Germany's Jews. Frist the Jews were stripped of their German citizenship, so that they lost all legal protection and rights.

Jewish children were not allowed in school. Jewish doctors and lawyers could not practice. Jewish farmers were stripped of their land and Jews had their telephones taken.

Marriages b/w Jews and Gentiles were annulled. Jews were forced to wear the 'Star of David" in public.

In 1938, an angry German Jew shot and killed a German official in Paris. Goebbels decided to use the incident for a 'spontaneous' uprising against Germany's Jew using SS soldiers in civilian clothing.

It was three days of terror and destruction known as "Kristallnacht".

The Holocaust

The Jewish Genocide

Hitler saw history as a struggle b/w Aryans and Jews. He determined that once war started that no Jews would survive to see the end of it.

Hitler did not invent anti-Semitism; it had always been present among Europe's Christians since the founding of the Catholic Church. Hitler just built on people's prejudice to harden their hearts towards Jews.

The Nuremburg Laws dealt only w/Germany's Jews, once the conquest of East Europe and Russia began, millions more Jews came under Nazi.

The Final Solution

"The Final Solution" is a euphemism. It refers to the Nazi efforts to physically exterminate all Jews in Europe, w/o actually saying it.

Himmler put Reinhard Heydrich in charge of administering the program. He created the Einsatzgruppen, special platoons of SS soldiers tasked w/ carrying out the program.

After the conquests of Czechoslovakia and Poland, the SS began rounding up Jews and sending them to ghettoes. Ghettoes were walled sections w/in a city.

Families were crowded in together w/not enough bathrooms and clean water. The Nazis also starved them by not letting in enough food.

Russia had the most Jews of any country in Europe, so when the Germany army invaded in 1941, the Einsatzgruppen become mobile.

They followed just behind the lines. They went into each village and found the undesirables: Jews, gypsies, homosexuals, Jehovah's Witnesses and communist.

The villages would be force to dig a pit or ditch and the victims were lined up next to it so that the bullet's momentum would push the body into the pit then the villagers buried the bodies.

Later the SS brought in 'death vans'; people could loaded into the cargo box, sealed in and killed on the way to the mass grave by the engine's exhaust piped into the back.

More than a million people were killed this way, but it wasn't efficient enough. Besides some SS troopers were being affected enough to ask for transfers to combat units. A more efficient method of extermination must be found.

The Wannsee Conference was held at the beginning of 1942 outside Berlin. Scientists, engineers and Reich official met to discuss the final solution. They decided the most efficient means to kill 8 million Jews was built death camps equipped w/ large gas chambers and furnaces.

RR's were built to five new death camps that were built in Poland. Auschwitz was the largest and it could kill and dispose of 20k bodies a day.

People arrived packed in the cattle cars; the 30% who were young and healthy enough for work were sent to nearby concentration camps to be worked to death. The rest were sent to the 'showers' for an immediate death.

The Polish ghettoes were cleared out first, but by the summer of '42 the camps were receiving Jews from France, Holland and Belgium. Even Russian POWs were sent the death camps for gases.

Even as late as 1944 when the Germany was clearly losing the war, the highest priority for the RR's was transporting Jews from Italy, Greece and Hungary.

Germany sent its own Jews, Jews from occupied territories and even from its allies to the death camps that kept operating right up to the end of the war.

There were many cases of diplomats, clergy, resistance groups and individuals who tried to hide, help, or transport Jews too safely. There were also many instances of collaboration w/the Nazi efforts particularly in France.

The Ailled powers themselves however took no action to stop the genocide. Ailled leaders felt the best way to stop the Holocaust was to end the war, no resources could be wasted.

Though the Germans kept good enough records to convict many officers and officials for 'crimes against humanity' at the end of the war, they don't tell us exactly how many people died.

Best guess: 6 million Jews (1.2 were children), 400k gypsies, 4 million Poles, Ukrainians and Belorussians. 4 million Soviet POW's and another millions of various group

How did this happen?

Germany's injured pride after WW I.

Economic and political problems that a weak gov't couldn't solve

Hitler's total control of the state

A lack of respect for the rights of individuals and democracy

German's fear of the Gestapo

Encouragement of anti-Semitism

"All that is necessary for evil to thrive, is that good men should do nothing"-Edmund Burke

Path of War: Europe

1935-1941

Italy

Italy already had Libya as a colony in . The Italians invaded Sudan from Libya, and then in 1935 invaded the independent kingdom of Ethiopia.

The King of Ethiopia went to the League of Nations to ask for help, but delegates only voted for sanctions, not armed intervention.

In 1938 both Mussolini and Hitler committed some forces to help the fascists under Gen. Franco win the Spanish civil war.

In 1940 Mussolini launched an attack from Libya on the British in Egypt to gain control of the Suez Canal. The Italians pushed into Egypt, but got stopped.

Germany

By 1935, Hitler was violating the terms of the Treaty of Versailles by creating a new air force and increasing the army to over half millions.

The Rhineland was the heart of Germany's industry, but was supposed to be 'de-militarized'. Hitler marched troops into it in 1936. These factories were quickly filled w/ workers and production was increased for chemical, steel and military equipment.

France had the right to invade, but wouldn't w/o British support. England was under the impression that Hitler's actions were reasonable, and that as long as they gave into those demands, there would be peace.

Hitler had no respect for democracies before he came to power, when they let him get away with so many violations, he became convinced they would never use force against him.

Josef Goebbels was feeding the world the world propaganda of Hitler's desire for equality and justice for the German people, to disguise Hitler's real ambitions.

In 1936 the Italians, Germans and Japanese signed the Anti-Commintern Pact. The first step towards becoming "Axis Powers"

In 1936 Hitler sends forces to Spain for France, Hoping that Franco could be made an ally. Franco won but refused to join the Axis.

Hitler had promised his 'chosen 'people room to expand, he began w/ the Anschluss (union). Since Austrians were German-speakers, Hitler 'justly' announced that the two, should be one.

Austrian Nazi was placed in the gov't and then Hitler peacefully invaded. The Austrians were given a vote (plebiscite) after the Anschluss and 99% voted for Hitler and the Nazi.

Hitler next demanded to annex a German-speaking region of W. Czech Called the Sudetenland. In 1938 British and France leaders flew to Munich to meet w/Hitler to prevent war (Munich Agreement).

The British and France gov'ts sympathized with the Czech's but gave away their territory in return for a promise from Hitler to stop making demands for land.

In March 1939, Hitler took the rest of the Czechoslovakia. At this point the British and French realized that appeasement had failed, and that they had to oppose Hitler.

Hitler next wanted control of the Germany city of Danzig, which was in Polish territory. Britain and France rejected Hitler's demands.

Both sides began negotiations w/ the Soviet leader Joseph Stalin. Hitler was trying to get an agreement to divide Poland. The British and French wanted Soviet support to get Hitler to back down.

Hitler's army launched a surprised a 'blitkreig' attack on the Poland on Sept 1st, 1939. Two days later the French and British declared war on Germany. WWII had begun. Later Italy declared war against the British and French and joined the war.

Blitzkreig (lightning war)

Path to War: Asia

1937-1941

Japan's Rising Sun

Japan's ambitions had increased through the 30's, especially in China. Chiang Kai-Shek tried to appease the Japanese, but that just postponed Japanese aggression.

In 1936, Shek was forced to put aside his fight w/Mao and the communists and ally w/ them to focus on fighting the Japanese. That didn't keep the Japanese from taking his capital at Nanking. Shek was forced to retreat far to the west.

The Japanese eventually controlled about the eastern third of China, including all of its major ports.

The Japanese were brutal conqueror b/c of their fanatical racism against the Chinese. Chinese civilians suffered rapes, bombings, infanticides, gassings, and even biological warfare.

The U.S. did not react well to Japanese aggression and brutality in Asia. The U.S. was also worried that Japan had designs on the Pacific that crossed our own interests.

Pres. Roosevelt saw the danger signs across both oceans but had walk a fine line w/the Am. People who wanted a policy of isolationism, the U.S. had remained neutral, so there was little the Roosevelt could do.

When Japan demanded rights in French Indochina, the U.S. objected threatening and embargo on scrap metal and oil. The Japanese marched in anyway and the sanctions were applied.

Japan was receiving 80% of its oil from the U.S., so b/c of the embargo Japan only had 6 months' supply. The Japanese Prime Minister Gen. Hideki Tojo gave the order to Adm. Isoroku Yamamoto prepare a plan to strike the U.S. Pacific Fleet at Pearl Harbor.

During the six months of planning and practice, the Japanese pretended to be working for peace. The diplomats were supposed to deliver a declaration of war thirty minutes before the attack began; instead it was thirty minutes late.

Pres. Roosevelt asked Congress for a declaration of war against Japan and it passed. Germany and Italy's declarations followed and Congress replied to those as well.

The British Prime Minister, Winston Churchill, was delighted to have a new ally. Churchill knew that only the U.S. had the industrial capacity to supply the massive amounts of ships, planes, tanks and guns for itself plus all of the allied forces as well.

Stalin immediately demanded a landing in W. Europe to take the pressure off his armies losing in Russia. He won't get that, but the U.S. was in action quickly in both the Pacific and Europe by 1942.

The War in Europe

After Hitler's quick victory over the Poles, he then set his on taking Norway and Denmark (blitzkrieg)

Even before the conquest of Norway was complete Hitler had had launched a surprise attack against Belgium, Holland, and France. British and French forces reacted badly and become trapped b/w German armies.

338k British, French and Belgian soldiers had to be saved w/ an evacuation by sea at Dunkirk.

Belgium and Holland fell quickly, but France only took a few weeks longer.

When the French surrendered Germany occupied the northern third of the country, Paris and the W. coast across from England. The rest of France was a puppet state of collaborative French under Henri Petain.

Hitler had hoped to destroy the British army in France, and force a British surrender, the "Miracle at Dunkirk" however meant he had to invade. First he needed to gain control of the English Channel and English skies.

The 'Battle of Britain' was the largest and longest air battle in history. The Germans had numerical superiority, but history. The Germans had numerical superiority, but the British had radar and the Spitfire. The battle was won when Hitler lost patience and gave up the effort to plan for another attack.

Mussolini declared war and invaded S. France, Albania, Egypt and Greece. He got stuck in Egypt and Greece though, and Hitler had to come to his rescue.

Hitler coaxed Romania, Bulgaria and Hungary to join the Axis at this time, But Yugoslavia refused and resisted. In the end though Hitler took both Yugoslavia and Greece

To do it though Hitler had to postpone Operation Barbarossa, the invasion of the Soviet Union to the summer of '41

When the Blitzkreig smashed into W. Soviet Union, Stalin's forces were stunned and massacred. It was the largest military operation in history though, covering more territory than even the vast Axis force could adequately cover.

The German attack slowed to a stop in the frigid Russian winter. Then in Dec. '41 the Russians launched a counter attack. For the first time the Germans were pushed back.

1942 was a turning point year for the European theatre. Hitler renewed made one too many bad decisions and lost an army of 250k at the city of Stalingrad.

From January 1943 till the end of the war Hitler's armies were fighting just to hold back large well-equipped and experienced Soviet armies.

In 1941 Hitler had sent a small army called the 'Afrika Corps' under Gen. Erwin Rommel to help the Italians defeat the British in Egypt.

In 1942 Rommel had pushed back the British into Egypt once again but had been stopped at the Battle of El Alamein by a new British commander, Gen. Montgomery.

In Nov. 1942 Am. and British landing in Algiers and Morocoo were timed w/ an attack by Montgomery from Egypt.

In 1943 250k trapped German and Italian troops in Tunisia were forced to surrender.

In beginning of 1942 the German navy's U-boats were using wolf-packs to hunt the 'convoys' of the aillies, and were winning the Battle of the Atlantic.

By the end of the 1942 the Allies were winning the Battle the Atlantic.

The War in Asia

1941-1945

Yamamoto's plan only began w/ the attack at Pearl Harbor. He told the Japanese cabinet he could only guarantee six months of victories, so they worked fast.

In the days and weeks that followed the Japanese carried out their own blitzkrieg attacks in the Dutch East Indies, the Philippines, Guam, Wake, Malaya and Singapore and Hong Kong.

Many of the European colonies fell quickly. In the Philippines Gen. MacArthur had a small Am. army backed up by an ill-equipped army of Philippinos.

MacArthur's air force was destroyed the day after Pearl Harbor and the U.S. navy had nothing it could risk on sending to him to help.

The fight for the Philippines was fierce, but doomed MacArthur moved his small army onto the Bataan Peninsula and fought till he was out ammunition and down to just 75k worn men.

Thousands of those men died during the Bataan Death March to a POW camp. The Japanese did not follow the Geneva agreement on the treatment of POW's b/c their culture taught death before dishonor.

Just like in Europe, 1942 was the crucial year. The U.S. earned an advantage when code breakers in Hawaii broke the Japanese Navy's op. code. For the rest of the war Am. naval planners 'read the mail' of the Japanese navy.

The U.S. learned of the two plans. The first one was an op. to land troops near Port Moresby in Papua N.G.

The 2nd op. was a plan to ambush and sink the U.S. carriers in the battle for Midway Island. If they won the battle, the Japanese home island would be safe from a U.S. attack.

Coral Sea: May '42

Adm. Nimitz wanted to take the war to Japanese, but he had to be careful not lose his 3 carriers. Nimitz knew how critical it was to protect our only real ally in the Pacific, so he sent two of them into the Coral Sea in May '42.

The Am. carriers were outnumbered, but the pilots did well and fought the Japanese to a draw. The Am's lost the carrier USS Lexington.

Midway: June '42

The Japanese strategy for fighting the U.S. was to build a line of fortified islands as far out in the Pacific as possible; Midway was to be part of the line.

Adm. Nimitz reinforced the island, then sent his only three carriers to the to ambush four Japanese carriers. The U.S. was counting on 'surprise'.

The two day battle did not go well for the Am.'s at first, but then three squadrons of Am. dive bombers found three Japanese carriers. They left behind three exploding hulks. The next day the Am.'s found the fourth Japanese carriers and sank it too.

The Pacific theatre was so big, military planners decided divide up commands.

Across the S. Pacific, where the fighting was mostly to take ground on large island, army Gen. MacArthur was soldiers, planes and ships to push back the Japanese from Papua all the way to the Philippine Is.

Am. strategy to fight the Japanese was to 'island hop' across the Pacific from both directions, until forces were close enough to invade the Japanese home islands.

Just as in Europe, Roosevelt wanted Am. forces on the offensive in the Pacific in 1942. The long fight west across the Pacific began at Guadalcanal in the Solomon Is. There was bitter jungle and sea fight for months over the island, but by the end of 42 Am.'s had taken their first Japanese held island.

The Mariana Is. Were close enough to begin using the new B-29 for strategic bombing of Japanese cities

Fat Man & Little Boy

The ultra-secret "Man